{"id":17203,"date":"2026-03-08T10:47:34","date_gmt":"2026-03-08T10:47:34","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/?page_id=17203"},"modified":"2026-10-10T23:32:46","modified_gmt":"2026-10-10T22:32:46","slug":"how-x-rays-reveal-the-structure-of-metal-crystals","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/chemistry-blog\/how-x-rays-reveal-the-structure-of-metal-crystals\/","title":{"rendered":"How X-Rays Reveal the Structure of Metal Crystals"},"content":{"rendered":"\n\n<style>\n.olsb{--ink:#0e1d30;--muted:#4d5c6e;--line:#d6e1ec;--accent:#1f67b7;--card:#fff;\n  font-family:Inter,ui-sans-serif,system-ui,-apple-system,BlinkMacSystemFont,\"Segoe UI\",sans-serif;color:var(--ink);\n  background:linear-gradient(180deg,#f8fbfe 0%,#eef4fa 100%)}\n.olsb *{box-sizing:border-box}\n.olsb .olsb-post{width:min(1180px,calc(100% - 40px));margin:0 auto;padding:56px 0 80px}\n.olsb 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(prefers-reduced-motion:reduce){.ols-b3d .b3d-seg button,.ols-b3d .b3d-pill{transition:none}}\n<\/style>\n\n<div class=\"olsb\">\n<main class=\"olsb-post\">\n  <header>\n    <p class=\"olsb-eyebrow\">Crystal Structures<\/p>\n    <h1 class=\"olsb-h1\">How X-Rays Reveal the Structure of Metal Crystals<\/h1>\n    <p class=\"olsb-dek\">Explore the structure of metal crystals and how X-ray diffraction reveals their atomic arrangements. Learn about common crystal lattices such as face-centred and body-centred cubic structures, and how theories like electron pair repulsion help explain the molecular shapes of sulphur compounds.<\/p>\n  <\/header>\n\n  <section class=\"olsb-shell\" aria-label=\"How X-Rays Reveal the Structure of Metal Crystals\">\n    <button class=\"olsb-zoom\" type=\"button\" aria-label=\"Open the image full screen\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/03\/ChatGPT-Image-Mar-8-2026-05_43_16-PM.jpg\" alt=\"X-rays revealing the structure of metal crystals through diffraction patterns\"><\/button>\n  <\/section>\n\n  <section class=\"olsb-grid\">\n    <article class=\"olsb-article\">\n<div id=\"olsb-ols-info-section-t1-000\" class=\"ols-info-section ols-info-section-t1-000\">\n<style>\n.ols-info-section-t1-000 * {\n  box-sizing: border-box;\n  font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-t1-000 {\n  max-width: 1100px;\n  margin: 0 auto 48px auto;\n  padding: 0 16px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-card {\n  background: #F3F4F6;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  border-radius: 24px;\n  padding: 36px 40px;\n  box-shadow: 0 7px 18px rgba(0,0,0,0.07);\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-pill {\n  display: inline-block;\n  background: #1C244B;\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 13px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  letter-spacing: 0.04em;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  padding: 6px 14px;\n  margin: 0 0 20px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-title {\n  margin: 0 0 8px 0;\n  font-size: 34px;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  line-height: 1.2;\n  color: #1C244B;\n  text-shadow: -9px 0 9px rgba(28,36,75,0.3);\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-line {\n  width: 80px;\n  height: 4px;\n  background: #c81e1e;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  margin: 0 0 24px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-top-grid {\n  display: grid;\n  grid-template-columns: 1fr 1fr;\n  gap: 26px;\n  align-items: start;\n  margin-top: 26px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-bottom-grid {\n  display: grid;\n  grid-template-columns: 1fr;\n  margin-top: 26px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-text-card,\n.ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-image-card {\n  background: #ffffff;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  border-radius: 18px;\n  padding: 22px 24px;\n  box-shadow: 0 4px 14px rgba(0,0,0,0.06);\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-body {\n  font-size: 18px;\n  font-weight: 300;\n  line-height: 1.9;\n  color: #374151;\n  margin: 0 0 18px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-body:last-child {\n  margin-bottom: 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-image-card {\n  padding: 20px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-image-card img {\n  width: 100%;\n  display: block;\n  border-radius: 14px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-image-caption {\n  margin-top: 14px;\n  color: #1C244B;\n  font-size: 14px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  line-height: 1.4;\n  text-align: center;\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 900px) {\n  .ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-card {\n    padding: 24px 20px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-title {\n    font-size: 26px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-body {\n    font-size: 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-top-grid {\n    grid-template-columns: 1fr;\n  }\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 480px) {\n  .ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-card {\n    padding: 20px 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-title {\n    font-size: 22px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-body {\n    font-size: 15px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-text-card,\n  .ols-info-section-t1-000 .ols-image-card {\n    padding: 18px 16px;\n  }\n}\n<\/style>\n\n<div class=\"ols-card\">\n  <span class=\"ols-pill\">Crystal Structures<\/span>\n  <h2 class=\"ols-title\">How Do Scientists Know the Structure of Metal Crystals?<\/h2>\n  <div class=\"ols-line\"><\/div>\n\n  <div class=\"ols-top-grid\">\n    <div class=\"ols-text-card\">\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        You might wonder how scientists know what the internal structure of metal crystals looks like. One clue comes from the overall shape of large crystals. For example, a large crystal of sodium chloride forms a cubic shape, which suggests that the ions inside are arranged in a repeating cubic pattern.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        However, simply observing the outside of a crystal is not enough to fully understand how its particles are arranged. A major breakthrough came in the late nineteenth century with the discovery of X-rays, which provided a far more reliable way to investigate crystal structures.\n      <\/p>\n    <\/div>\n\n    <div class=\"ols-image-card\">\n      <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/03\/ChatGPT-Image-Mar-8-2026-05_54_10-PM.jpg\"\n           alt=\"X-ray diffraction used to determine the structure of metal crystals\">\n      <div class=\"ols-image-caption\">\n        X-ray diffraction can be used to investigate the internal arrangement of particles in crystals.\n      <\/div>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/div>\n\n  <div class=\"ols-bottom-grid\">\n    <div class=\"ols-text-card\">\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        X-rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation, part of the same spectrum that includes visible light, infrared radiation, and radio waves. Because of their very short wavelength, X-rays can interact with atoms in a crystal, allowing scientists to determine how the particles are arranged inside the structure of metal crystals.\n      <\/p>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<div id=\"olsb-ols-info-section-xray-001\" class=\"ols-info-section ols-info-section-xray-001\">\n<style>\n.ols-info-section-xray-001 * {\n  box-sizing: border-box;\n  font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-xray-001 {\n  max-width: 1100px;\n  margin: 0 auto 48px auto;\n  padding: 0 16px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-card {\n  background: #F3F4F6;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  border-radius: 24px;\n  padding: 36px 40px;\n  box-shadow: 0 7px 18px rgba(0,0,0,0.07);\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-pill {\n  display: inline-block;\n  background: #1C244B;\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 13px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  letter-spacing: 0.04em;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  padding: 6px 14px;\n  margin: 0 0 20px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-title {\n  margin: 0 0 8px 0;\n  font-size: 34px;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  line-height: 1.2;\n  color: #1C244B;\n  text-shadow: -9px 0 9px rgba(28,36,75,0.3);\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-line {\n  width: 80px;\n  height: 4px;\n  background: #c81e1e;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  margin: 0 0 24px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-top-grid {\n  display: grid;\n  grid-template-columns: 1fr 1fr;\n  gap: 26px;\n  align-items: start;\n  margin-top: 26px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-bottom-grid {\n  display: grid;\n  grid-template-columns: 1fr;\n  margin-top: 26px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-text-card,\n.ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-image-card {\n  background: #ffffff;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  border-radius: 18px;\n  padding: 22px 24px;\n  box-shadow: 0 4px 14px rgba(0,0,0,0.06);\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-body {\n  font-size: 18px;\n  font-weight: 300;\n  line-height: 1.9;\n  color: #374151;\n  margin: 0 0 18px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-body:last-child {\n  margin-bottom: 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-image-card {\n  padding: 20px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-image-card img {\n  width: 100%;\n  display: block;\n  border-radius: 14px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-image-caption {\n  margin-top: 14px;\n  color: #1C244B;\n  font-size: 14px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  line-height: 1.4;\n  text-align: center;\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 900px) {\n  .ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-card {\n    padding: 24px 20px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-title {\n    font-size: 26px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-body {\n    font-size: 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-top-grid {\n    grid-template-columns: 1fr;\n  }\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 480px) {\n  .ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-card {\n    padding: 20px 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-title {\n    font-size: 22px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-body {\n    font-size: 15px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-text-card,\n  .ols-info-section-xray-001 .ols-image-card {\n    padding: 18px 16px;\n  }\n}\n<\/style>\n\n<div class=\"ols-card\">\n  <span class=\"ols-pill\">X-Ray Diffraction<\/span>\n  <h2 class=\"ols-title\">Using X-Rays to Investigate Crystal Structures<\/h2>\n  <div class=\"ols-line\"><\/div>\n\n  <div class=\"ols-top-grid\">\n    <div class=\"ols-text-card\">\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        The wavelength of X-rays is roughly the same size as atoms, and much shorter than the wavelengths of visible light. Because of this, X-rays have higher energy and are able to penetrate materials more effectively. This property makes them extremely useful for studying the internal structure of crystals.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        In a technique known as X-ray diffraction, a concentrated beam of X-rays is directed at a crystal. As the X-rays pass through the crystal, they are diffracted (scattered) by the atoms inside. The pattern produced depends on the arrangement and orientation of particles within the crystal lattice.\n      <\/p>\n    <\/div>\n\n    <div class=\"ols-image-card\">\n      <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/03\/xraydiffraction.jpg\"\n           alt=\"X-ray diffraction being used to investigate crystal structures\">\n      <div class=\"ols-image-caption\">\n        X-ray diffraction produces patterns that can be analysed to determine crystal structure.\n      <\/div>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/div>\n\n  <div class=\"ols-bottom-grid\">\n    <div class=\"ols-text-card\">\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        Scientists analyse the resulting diffraction pattern to determine how atoms or ions are organised inside the structure of metal crystals. This powerful method was developed at the Royal Institution in London by the father-son team William Bragg and Lawrence Bragg. Their work revolutionised the study of crystal structures, and in 1915 they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        Although interpreting diffraction patterns can be complex, X-ray diffraction remains one of the most important techniques used to study the structure of materials.\n      <\/p>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<div id=\"olsb-ols-info-section-fcc-006\" class=\"ols-info-section ols-info-section-fcc-006\">\n<style>\n.ols-info-section-fcc-006 * {\n  box-sizing: border-box;\n  font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-fcc-006 {\n  max-width: 1100px;\n  margin: 0 auto 48px auto;\n  padding: 0 16px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-card {\n  background: #F3F4F6;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  border-radius: 24px;\n  padding: 36px 40px;\n  box-shadow: 0 7px 18px rgba(0,0,0,0.07);\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-pill {\n  display: inline-block;\n  background: #1C244B;\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 13px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  letter-spacing: 0.04em;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  padding: 6px 14px;\n  margin: 0 0 20px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-title {\n  margin: 0 0 8px 0;\n  font-size: 28px;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  line-height: 1.25;\n  color: #1C244B;\n  text-shadow: -9px 0 9px rgba(28,36,75,0.3);\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-line {\n  width: 72px;\n  height: 4px;\n  background: #c81e1e;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  margin: 0 0 22px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-body {\n  font-size: 17px;\n  font-weight: 300;\n  line-height: 1.85;\n  color: #374151;\n  margin: 0 0 16px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-body:last-child {\n  margin-bottom: 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-body strong {\n  color: #1C244B;\n  font-weight: 600;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-body a {\n  color: #1C244B;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  text-decoration: underline;\n  text-decoration-color: #c81e1e;\n  text-decoration-thickness: 2px;\n  text-underline-offset: 4px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-molecule-box {\n  position: relative;\n  width: 100%;\n  height: 500px;\n  background: #ffffff;\n  border-radius: 18px;\n  overflow: hidden;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  box-shadow: 0 4px 14px rgba(0,0,0,0.08);\n  margin-top: 28px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-molecule-viewer {\n  width: 100%;\n  height: 500px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-molecule-label {\n  position: absolute;\n  top: 15px;\n  right: 15px;\n  background: rgba(255,255,255,0.9);\n  color: #1C244B;\n  padding: 8px 12px;\n  border-radius: 8px;\n  font-size: 14px;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  box-shadow: 0 2px 8px rgba(0,0,0,0.15);\n  pointer-events: none;\n  z-index: 10;\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 900px) {\n  .ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-card {\n    padding: 24px 20px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-title {\n    font-size: 22px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-body {\n    font-size: 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-molecule-box,\n  .ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-molecule-viewer {\n    height: 360px;\n  }\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 480px) {\n  .ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-card {\n    padding: 20px 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-title {\n    font-size: 19px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-body {\n    font-size: 15px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-fcc-006 .ols-molecule-label {\n    font-size: 12px;\n    top: 10px;\n    right: 10px;\n  }\n}\n<\/style>\n\n<div class=\"ols-card\">\n  <span class=\"ols-pill\">Crystal Structures<\/span>\n  <h2 class=\"ols-title\">The Unit Cell in Metal Crystals<\/h2>\n  <div class=\"ols-line\"><\/div>\n\n  <p class=\"ols-body\">\n    Most structure of metal crystals have a <strong>simple repeating arrangement of atoms<\/strong> that determines the overall shape and structure of the crystal. The smallest repeating part of this structure is called the <strong>unit cell<\/strong>, and it describes how atoms are organised throughout the metal.\n  <\/p>\n\n  <p class=\"ols-body\">\n    One important type of unit cell is the \n    <a href=\"https:\/\/chem.libretexts.org\/Courses\/Northern_Michigan_University\/CH_215%3A_Chemistry_of_the_Elements_Fall_2023\/05%3A_Solids_and_Solid-State_Chemistry\/5.02%3A_Lattice_Structures_in_Metallic_Solids\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\n      <strong>face-centred cubic (FCC) structure<\/strong>\n    <\/a>. In this structure, atoms are located at the <strong>eight corners of a cube<\/strong>, with additional atoms positioned at the <strong>centre of each of the six faces<\/strong> of the cube. When many of these unit cells repeat in all directions, they build up the full metal crystal.\n  <\/p>\n\n  <p class=\"ols-body\">\n    Several metals adopt this structure, including <strong>aluminium, copper and gold<\/strong>. Interestingly, iodine also forms a structure based on a face-centred cubic arrangement. However, in iodine the positions in the structure are occupied by <strong>iodine molecules (I\u2082)<\/strong> rather than individual atoms.\n  <\/p>\n\n  <p class=\"ols-body\">\n    This repeating pattern allows the crystal to extend in three dimensions while maintaining a <strong>consistent and organised atomic structure of metal crystals.<\/strong>\n  <\/p>\n\n  <!-- Copyright (c) 2026 Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah, onlinelearningsystem.net. All rights reserved. -->\n<section class=\"ols-b3d\" data-b3d=\"fcc-cell\" id=\"b3d-fcc-cell\">\n<div class=\"b3d-head\"><h3 class=\"b3d-title\">Face-centred cubic unit cell<\/h3><p class=\"b3d-sub\">Turn the unit cell, then switch views to see how the atoms really touch and how many neighbours each one has.<\/p><\/div>\n<div class=\"b3d-stage\" data-b3d-stage><canvas class=\"b3d-canvas\" aria-label=\"Face-centred cubic unit cell: interactive 3D model, drag to rotate\"><\/canvas>\n<div class=\"b3d-caption\" data-b3d-caption aria-live=\"polite\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"b3d-hint\">Drag to rotate<\/div>\n<\/div><div class=\"b3d-controls\">\n<div class=\"b3d-row\"><span class=\"b3d-rowlab\">Show<\/span><div class=\"b3d-seg\" role=\"group\" aria-label=\"Show\">\n<button type=\"button\" data-b3d-view=\"cell\" aria-pressed=\"true\"><span class=\"b3d-n\">1<\/span>Unit cell<\/button>\n<button type=\"button\" data-b3d-view=\"fill\" aria-pressed=\"false\"><span class=\"b3d-n\">2<\/span>Touching atoms<\/button>\n<button type=\"button\" data-b3d-view=\"nb\" aria-pressed=\"false\"><span class=\"b3d-n\">3<\/span>Neighbours<\/button>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"b3d-row\"><span class=\"b3d-rowlab\">View<\/span><button type=\"button\" class=\"b3d-pill\" data-b3d-pause aria-pressed=\"false\">Pause<\/button><button type=\"button\" class=\"b3d-pill\" data-b3d-reset>Reset view<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"b3d-info\"><h4>Counting the atoms<\/h4><p>Each corner atom is shared by 8 unit cells and each face atom by 2, so one unit cell contains 8 \u00d7 \u215b + 6 \u00d7 \u00bd = 4 atoms.<\/p>\n<div class=\"b3d-facts\"><div class=\"b3d-fact\"><span>Atoms per unit cell<\/span><strong>4<\/strong><\/div><div class=\"b3d-fact\"><span>Coordination number<\/span><strong>12<\/strong><\/div><div class=\"b3d-fact\"><span>Space filled<\/span><strong>74%<\/strong><\/div><div class=\"b3d-fact\"><span>Examples<\/span><strong>Al, Cu, Au<\/strong><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"b3d-key\"><span><i style=\"background:#3a6fd8\"><\/i>Metal atom<\/span><span><i style=\"background:#f2c14e\"><\/i>Chosen atom (Neighbours view)<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<\/div>\n\n<div id=\"olsb-ols-info-section-bcc-005\" class=\"ols-info-section ols-info-section-bcc-005\">\n<style>\n.ols-info-section-bcc-005 * {\n  box-sizing: border-box;\n  font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-bcc-005 {\n  max-width: 1100px;\n  margin: 0 auto 48px auto;\n  padding: 0 16px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-card {\n  background: #F3F4F6;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  border-radius: 24px;\n  padding: 36px 40px;\n  box-shadow: 0 7px 18px rgba(0,0,0,0.07);\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-pill {\n  display: inline-block;\n  background: #1C244B;\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 13px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  letter-spacing: 0.04em;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  padding: 6px 14px;\n  margin: 0 0 20px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-title {\n  margin: 0 0 8px 0;\n  font-size: 28px;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  line-height: 1.25;\n  color: #1C244B;\n  text-shadow: -9px 0 9px rgba(28,36,75,0.3);\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-line {\n  width: 72px;\n  height: 4px;\n  background: #c81e1e;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  margin: 0 0 22px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-body {\n  font-size: 17px;\n  font-weight: 300;\n  line-height: 1.85;\n  color: #374151;\n  margin: 0 0 16px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-body:last-child {\n  margin-bottom: 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-body strong {\n  color: #1C244B;\n  font-weight: 600;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-body a {\n  color: #1C244B;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  text-decoration: underline;\n  text-decoration-color: #c81e1e;\n  text-decoration-thickness: 2px;\n  text-underline-offset: 4px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-molecule-box {\n  position: relative;\n  width: 100%;\n  height: 500px;\n  background: #ffffff;\n  border-radius: 18px;\n  overflow: hidden;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  box-shadow: 0 4px 14px rgba(0,0,0,0.08);\n  margin-top: 28px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-molecule-viewer {\n  width: 100%;\n  height: 500px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-molecule-label {\n  position: absolute;\n  top: 15px;\n  right: 15px;\n  background: rgba(255,255,255,0.9);\n  color: #1C244B;\n  padding: 8px 12px;\n  border-radius: 8px;\n  font-size: 14px;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  box-shadow: 0 2px 8px rgba(0,0,0,0.15);\n  pointer-events: none;\n  z-index: 10;\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 900px) {\n  .ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-card {\n    padding: 24px 20px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-title {\n    font-size: 22px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-body {\n    font-size: 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-molecule-box,\n  .ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-molecule-viewer {\n    height: 360px;\n  }\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 480px) {\n  .ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-card {\n    padding: 20px 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-title {\n    font-size: 19px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-body {\n    font-size: 15px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-bcc-005 .ols-molecule-label {\n    font-size: 12px;\n    top: 10px;\n    right: 10px;\n  }\n}\n<\/style>\n\n<div class=\"ols-card\">\n  <span class=\"ols-pill\">Crystal Structures<\/span>\n  <h2 class=\"ols-title\">Body-Centred Cubic Structures<\/h2>\n  <div class=\"ols-line\"><\/div>\n\n  <p class=\"ols-body\">\n    Some structure of metal crystals form a different type of unit cell known as a \n    <a href=\"https:\/\/chem.libretexts.org\/Courses\/Northern_Michigan_University\/CH_215%3A_Chemistry_of_the_Elements_Fall_2023\/05%3A_Solids_and_Solid-State_Chemistry\/5.02%3A_Lattice_Structures_in_Metallic_Solids\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\n      <strong>body-centred cubic (BCC) structure<\/strong>\n    <\/a>. In this arrangement, atoms are located at the <strong>eight corners of the cube<\/strong>, with an additional atom positioned at the <strong>centre of the cube<\/strong>.\n  <\/p>\n\n  <p class=\"ols-body\">\n    As with other crystal structures, the faces of the cube are shared with neighbouring unit cells. When these unit cells repeat in all directions, they form the full three-dimensional structure of the metal crystal.\n  <\/p>\n\n  <p class=\"ols-body\">\n    In a body-centred cubic structure, the atoms along the <strong>main diagonal of the cube<\/strong> touch each other. Metals with this structure are often described as having atoms that are <strong>closely packed together<\/strong>, although the packing is not as efficient as in a <strong>face-centred cubic structure<\/strong>.\n  <\/p>\n\n  <p class=\"ols-body\">\n    Many <strong>alkali metals<\/strong> adopt this type of crystal structure, demonstrating how different arrangements of atoms can influence the properties of metals.\n  <\/p>\n\n  <!-- Copyright (c) 2026 Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah, onlinelearningsystem.net. All rights reserved. -->\n<section class=\"ols-b3d\" data-b3d=\"bcc-cell\" id=\"b3d-bcc-cell\">\n<div class=\"b3d-head\"><h3 class=\"b3d-title\">Body-centred cubic unit cell<\/h3><p class=\"b3d-sub\">Turn the unit cell, then switch views to see the atoms touching along the body diagonal and the centre atom\u2019s neighbours.<\/p><\/div>\n<div class=\"b3d-stage\" data-b3d-stage><canvas class=\"b3d-canvas\" aria-label=\"Body-centred cubic unit cell: interactive 3D model, drag to rotate\"><\/canvas>\n<div class=\"b3d-caption\" data-b3d-caption aria-live=\"polite\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"b3d-hint\">Drag to rotate<\/div>\n<\/div><div class=\"b3d-controls\">\n<div class=\"b3d-row\"><span class=\"b3d-rowlab\">Show<\/span><div class=\"b3d-seg\" role=\"group\" aria-label=\"Show\">\n<button type=\"button\" data-b3d-view=\"cell\" aria-pressed=\"true\"><span class=\"b3d-n\">1<\/span>Unit cell<\/button>\n<button type=\"button\" data-b3d-view=\"fill\" aria-pressed=\"false\"><span class=\"b3d-n\">2<\/span>Touching atoms<\/button>\n<button type=\"button\" data-b3d-view=\"nb\" aria-pressed=\"false\"><span class=\"b3d-n\">3<\/span>Neighbours<\/button>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"b3d-row\"><span class=\"b3d-rowlab\">View<\/span><button type=\"button\" class=\"b3d-pill\" data-b3d-pause aria-pressed=\"false\">Pause<\/button><button type=\"button\" class=\"b3d-pill\" data-b3d-reset>Reset view<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"b3d-info\"><h4>Counting the atoms<\/h4><p>Each corner atom is shared by 8 unit cells and the centre atom belongs to this cell alone, so one unit cell contains 8 \u00d7 \u215b + 1 = 2 atoms.<\/p>\n<div class=\"b3d-facts\"><div class=\"b3d-fact\"><span>Atoms per unit cell<\/span><strong>2<\/strong><\/div><div class=\"b3d-fact\"><span>Coordination number<\/span><strong>8<\/strong><\/div><div class=\"b3d-fact\"><span>Space filled<\/span><strong>68%<\/strong><\/div><div class=\"b3d-fact\"><span>Examples<\/span><strong>Na, K, Fe<\/strong><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"b3d-key\"><span><i style=\"background:#3a6fd8\"><\/i>Metal atom<\/span><span><i style=\"background:#f2c14e\"><\/i>Chosen atom (Neighbours view)<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<\/div>\n\n<div id=\"olsb-ols-info-section-extension-001\" class=\"ols-info-section ols-info-section-extension-001\">\n<style>\n.ols-info-section-extension-001 * {\n  box-sizing: border-box;\n  font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-extension-001 {\n  max-width: 1100px;\n  margin: 0 auto 48px auto;\n  padding: 0 16px;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-extension-001 .ols-info-card {\n  background: #F3F4F6;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  border-radius: 24px;\n  padding: 36px 40px;\n  box-shadow: 0 7px 18px rgba(0,0,0,0.07);\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-extension-001 .ols-pill {\n  display: inline-block;\n  background: #1C244B;\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 13px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  letter-spacing: 0.04em;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  padding: 6px 14px;\n  margin: 0 0 20px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-extension-001 .ols-title {\n  margin: 0 0 8px 0;\n  font-size: 28px;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  line-height: 1.25;\n  color: #1C244B;\n  text-shadow: -9px 0 9px rgba(28,36,75,0.3);\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-extension-001 .ols-line {\n  width: 72px;\n  height: 4px;\n  background: #c81e1e;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  margin: 0 0 22px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-extension-001 .ols-body {\n  font-size: 17px;\n  font-weight: 300;\n  line-height: 1.85;\n  color: #374151;\n  margin: 0 0 16px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-extension-001 .ols-body:last-child {\n  margin-bottom: 0;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-extension-001 .ols-body strong {\n  color: #1C244B;\n  font-weight: 600;\n}\n\n.ols-info-section-extension-001 .ols-body a {\n  color: #1C244B;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  text-decoration: underline;\n  text-decoration-color: #c81e1e;\n  text-decoration-thickness: 2px;\n  text-underline-offset: 4px;\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 900px) {\n  .ols-info-section-extension-001 .ols-info-card {\n    padding: 24px 20px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-extension-001 .ols-title {\n    font-size: 22px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-extension-001 .ols-body {\n    font-size: 16px;\n  }\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 480px) {\n  .ols-info-section-extension-001 .ols-info-card {\n    padding: 20px 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-extension-001 .ols-title {\n    font-size: 19px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-info-section-extension-001 .ols-body {\n    font-size: 15px;\n  }\n}\n<\/style>\n\n<div class=\"ols-info-card\">\n  <span class=\"ols-pill\">Extension Questions<\/span>\n  <h2 class=\"ols-title\">Sulphur Chemistry and Molecular Shapes<\/h2>\n  <div class=\"ols-line\"><\/div>\n\n  <p class=\"ols-body\">\n    <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/courses\/covalent-bonding-shapes-of-molecules-edexcel-t3b-c\/\"><strong>Electron pair repulsion theory<\/strong><\/a> can be used to predict the <strong>shapes of many molecules and ions<\/strong>. When applying this theory, it is important to consider how the <strong>electron pairs are arranged around the central atom<\/strong>. A key principle is that atoms of elements in the <strong>second period of the periodic table<\/strong> cannot expand their outer shell beyond <strong>eight electrons<\/strong>. In contrast, atoms in the <strong>third period and beyond<\/strong> can often accommodate <strong>more than eight electrons<\/strong> in their outer shell.\n  <\/p>\n\n  <p class=\"ols-body\">\n    <strong>Sulphur<\/strong> forms two common <strong>oxides<\/strong>, <strong>SO\u2082<\/strong> and <strong>SO\u2083<\/strong>. It also forms several <strong>anions<\/strong>, including <strong>sulphite, SO\u2083\u00b2\u207b<\/strong>, and <strong>sulphate, SO\u2084\u00b2\u207b<\/strong>. In addition, sulphur forms <strong>thio compounds<\/strong>, in which an <strong>oxygen atom is replaced by a sulphur atom<\/strong> within the molecule.\n  <\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<div id=\"olsb-ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007\" class=\"ols-flip-section ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007\">\n<style>\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 * {\n  box-sizing: border-box;\n  font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 {\n  max-width: 1100px;\n  margin: 0 auto 48px auto;\n  padding: 0 16px;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-flip-card {\n  perspective: 1600px;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-flip-inner {\n  position: relative;\n  transform-style: preserve-3d;\n  transition: transform 0.75s ease, height 0.4s ease;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-flip-card.is-flipped .ols-flip-inner {\n  transform: rotateY(180deg);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-flip-face {\n  width: 100%;\n  backface-visibility: hidden;\n  background: #F3F4F6;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  border-radius: 24px;\n  padding: 36px 40px;\n  box-shadow: 0 7px 18px rgba(0,0,0,0.07);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-flip-front {\n  position: relative;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-flip-back {\n  position: absolute;\n  top: 0;\n  left: 0;\n  transform: rotateY(180deg);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-pill {\n  display: inline-block;\n  background: #1C244B;\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 13px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  letter-spacing: 0.04em;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  padding: 6px 14px;\n  margin: 0 0 20px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-title {\n  margin: 0 0 8px 0;\n  font-size: 28px;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  line-height: 1.25;\n  color: #1C244B;\n  text-shadow: -9px 0 9px rgba(28,36,75,0.3);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-line {\n  width: 72px;\n  height: 4px;\n  background: #c81e1e;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  margin: 0 0 22px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-body {\n  font-size: 17px;\n  font-weight: 300;\n  line-height: 1.85;\n  color: #374151;\n  margin: 0 0 14px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-body strong {\n  color: #1C244B;\n  font-weight: 600;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-answer-grid {\n  display: grid;\n  grid-template-columns: 1fr 1fr;\n  gap: 26px;\n  align-items: start;\n  margin: 26px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-answer-card {\n  background: #ffffff;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  border-radius: 18px;\n  padding: 22px 24px;\n  box-shadow: 0 4px 14px rgba(0,0,0,0.06);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-answer-card .ols-body:last-child {\n  margin-bottom: 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-molecule-box {\n  position: relative;\n  width: 100%;\n  height: 300px;\n  background: #fff;\n  border-radius: 18px;\n  overflow: hidden;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  box-shadow: 0 4px 14px rgba(0,0,0,0.08);\n  margin-top: 20px;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-molecule-viewer {\n  width: 100%;\n  height: 300px;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-molecule-label {\n  position: absolute;\n  top: 15px;\n  right: 15px;\n  background: rgba(255,255,255,0.9);\n  color: #1C244B;\n  padding: 8px 12px;\n  border-radius: 8px;\n  font-size: 14px;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  box-shadow: 0 2px 8px rgba(0,0,0,0.15);\n  z-index: 10;\n  pointer-events: none;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-molecule-caption {\n  position: absolute;\n  left: 18px;\n  right: 18px;\n  bottom: 16px;\n  background: rgba(255,255,255,0.92);\n  color: #1C244B;\n  padding: 10px 14px;\n  border-radius: 12px;\n  font-size: 14px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  line-height: 1.35;\n  text-align: center;\n  box-shadow: 0 2px 8px rgba(0,0,0,0.12);\n  z-index: 10;\n  pointer-events: none;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-btn {\n  display: inline-block;\n  margin-top: 24px;\n  padding: 14px 32px;\n  background: #c81e1e;\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 15px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  text-decoration: none;\n  border: none;\n  cursor: pointer;\n  box-shadow: 0 4px 14px rgba(200,30,30,0.3);\n  transition: transform 0.15s ease, box-shadow 0.15s ease;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-btn:hover {\n  transform: translateY(-2px);\n  box-shadow: 0 8px 22px rgba(200,30,30,0.38);\n  color: #fff;\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 900px) {\n  .ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-flip-face {\n    padding: 24px 20px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-title {\n    font-size: 22px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-body {\n    font-size: 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-answer-grid {\n    grid-template-columns: 1fr;\n  }\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 480px) {\n  .ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-flip-face {\n    padding: 20px 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-title {\n    font-size: 19px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-body {\n    font-size: 15px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-answer-card {\n    padding: 18px 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-btn {\n    width: 100%;\n    text-align: center;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-molecule-label {\n    font-size: 12px;\n    right: 10px;\n    top: 10px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007 .ols-molecule-caption {\n    font-size: 12px;\n    left: 12px;\n    right: 12px;\n    bottom: 12px;\n  }\n}\n<\/style>\n\n<div class=\"ols-flip-card\" id=\"ols-card-so2-sulfite-007\">\n  <div class=\"ols-flip-inner\">\n\n    <div class=\"ols-flip-face ols-flip-front\">\n      <span class=\"ols-pill\">Practice Question<\/span>\n      <h2 class=\"ols-title\">Electron Pair Repulsion Theory<\/h2>\n      <div class=\"ols-line\"><\/div>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        Thiosulphate, S\u2082O\u2083\u00b2\u207b, provides an example for applying electron pair repulsion theory.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        In the species discussed in parts (i) and (ii), the sulphur atom has ten electrons in its outer shell.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        <strong>(a)<\/strong> Determine the most likely molecular shape of each of the following:\n      <\/p>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        <strong>(i)<\/strong> SO\u2082<br>\n        <strong>(ii)<\/strong> SO\u2083\u00b2\u207b\n      <\/p>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        When considering this ion, the two electrons responsible for the 2\u207b charge must be included in the structure. This means that two of the oxygen atoms each carry one additional electron.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <button class=\"ols-btn\" type=\"button\" onclick=\"olsFlipSO2Sulfite007()\">Show Answer<\/button>\n    <\/div>\n\n    <div class=\"ols-flip-face ols-flip-back\">\n      <span class=\"ols-pill\">Model Answer<\/span>\n      <h2 class=\"ols-title\">Molecular Shapes<\/h2>\n      <div class=\"ols-line\"><\/div>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-answer-grid\">\n\n        <div class=\"ols-answer-card\">\n          <p class=\"ols-body\"><strong>(i) SO\u2082 &#8211; Bent (V-shaped)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            The central sulphur atom has three regions of electron density: two bonding pairs (S-O) and one lone pair.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            According to electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR), three regions arrange trigonal planar around the sulphur.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            Because one of these is a lone pair, the molecular shape, considering atoms only, becomes bent or angular with a bond angle slightly less than 120\u00b0.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <section class=\"ols-b3d b3d-mini\" data-b3d=\"mol-so2\"><div class=\"b3d-stage\" data-b3d-stage><canvas class=\"b3d-canvas\" aria-label=\"Sulphur dioxide, SO\u2082: bent V-shaped molecule: interactive 3D model, drag to rotate\"><\/canvas><div class=\"b3d-hint\">Drag to rotate<\/div><\/div><div class=\"b3d-under\"><span class=\"b3d-name\">Sulphur dioxide, SO\u2082: bent V-shaped molecule<\/span><span><button type=\"button\" class=\"b3d-pill\" data-b3d-pause aria-pressed=\"false\">Pause<\/button> <button type=\"button\" class=\"b3d-pill\" data-b3d-reset>Reset view<\/button><\/span><\/div><\/section>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-answer-card\">\n          <p class=\"ols-body\"><strong>(ii) SO\u2083\u00b2\u207b &#8211; Trigonal pyramidal<\/strong><\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            Around the central sulphur atom there are four regions of electron density: three bonding pairs (S-O) and one lone pair on sulphur.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            Four regions arrange tetrahedrally in terms of electron pair geometry.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            Because one position is occupied by a lone pair, the molecular shape is trigonal pyramidal, with bond angles slightly less than 109.5\u00b0.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <section class=\"ols-b3d b3d-mini\" data-b3d=\"mol-sulfite\"><div class=\"b3d-stage\" data-b3d-stage><canvas class=\"b3d-canvas\" aria-label=\"Sulphite ion, SO\u2083\u00b2\u207b: trigonal pyramidal ion: interactive 3D model, drag to rotate\"><\/canvas><div class=\"b3d-hint\">Drag to rotate<\/div><\/div><div class=\"b3d-under\"><span class=\"b3d-name\">Sulphite ion, SO\u2083\u00b2\u207b: trigonal pyramidal ion<\/span><span><button type=\"button\" class=\"b3d-pill\" data-b3d-pause aria-pressed=\"false\">Pause<\/button> <button type=\"button\" class=\"b3d-pill\" data-b3d-reset>Reset view<\/button><\/span><\/div><\/section>\n        <\/div>\n\n      <\/div>\n\n      <button class=\"ols-btn\" type=\"button\" onclick=\"olsFlipSO2Sulfite007()\">Back to Question<\/button>\n    <\/div>\n\n  <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<\/div>\n\n<div id=\"olsb-ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002\" class=\"ols-flip-section ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002\">\n<style>\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 * {\n  box-sizing: border-box;\n  font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 {\n  max-width: 1100px;\n  margin: 0 auto 48px auto;\n  padding: 0 16px;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-flip-card {\n  perspective: 1600px;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-flip-inner {\n  position: relative;\n  transform-style: preserve-3d;\n  transition: transform 0.75s ease, height 0.4s ease;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-flip-card.is-flipped .ols-flip-inner {\n  transform: rotateY(180deg);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-flip-face {\n  width: 100%;\n  backface-visibility: hidden;\n  background: #F3F4F6;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  border-radius: 24px;\n  padding: 36px 40px;\n  box-shadow: 0 7px 18px rgba(0,0,0,0.07);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-flip-front {\n  position: relative;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-flip-back {\n  position: absolute;\n  top: 0;\n  left: 0;\n  transform: rotateY(180deg);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-pill {\n  display: inline-block;\n  background: #1C244B;\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 13px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  letter-spacing: 0.04em;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  padding: 6px 14px;\n  margin: 0 0 20px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-title {\n  margin: 0 0 8px 0;\n  font-size: 28px;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  line-height: 1.25;\n  color: #1C244B;\n  text-shadow: -9px 0 9px rgba(28,36,75,0.3);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-line {\n  width: 72px;\n  height: 4px;\n  background: #c81e1e;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  margin: 0 0 22px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-body {\n  font-size: 17px;\n  font-weight: 300;\n  line-height: 1.85;\n  color: #374151;\n  margin: 0 0 14px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-body strong {\n  color: #1C244B;\n  font-weight: 600;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-answer-row {\n  display: grid;\n  grid-template-columns: 1.05fr 0.95fr;\n  gap: 26px;\n  align-items: stretch;\n  margin: 26px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-answer-text {\n  background: #ffffff;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  border-radius: 18px;\n  padding: 22px 24px;\n  box-shadow: 0 4px 14px rgba(0,0,0,0.06);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-answer-text .ols-body:last-child {\n  margin-bottom: 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-molecule-box {\n  position: relative;\n  width: 100%;\n  height: 300px;\n  background: #fff;\n  border-radius: 18px;\n  overflow: hidden;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  box-shadow: 0 4px 14px rgba(0,0,0,0.08);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-molecule-viewer {\n  width: 100%;\n  height: 300px;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-molecule-label {\n  position: absolute;\n  top: 15px;\n  right: 15px;\n  background: rgba(255,255,255,0.9);\n  color: #1C244B;\n  padding: 8px 12px;\n  border-radius: 8px;\n  font-size: 14px;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  box-shadow: 0 2px 8px rgba(0,0,0,0.15);\n  z-index: 10;\n  pointer-events: none;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-molecule-caption {\n  position: absolute;\n  left: 18px;\n  right: 18px;\n  bottom: 16px;\n  background: rgba(255,255,255,0.92);\n  color: #1C244B;\n  padding: 10px 14px;\n  border-radius: 12px;\n  font-size: 14px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  line-height: 1.35;\n  text-align: center;\n  box-shadow: 0 2px 8px rgba(0,0,0,0.12);\n  z-index: 10;\n  pointer-events: none;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-btn {\n  display: inline-block;\n  margin-top: 24px;\n  padding: 14px 32px;\n  background: #c81e1e;\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 15px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  text-decoration: none;\n  border: none;\n  cursor: pointer;\n  box-shadow: 0 4px 14px rgba(200,30,30,0.3);\n  transition: transform 0.15s ease, box-shadow 0.15s ease;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-btn:hover {\n  transform: translateY(-2px);\n  box-shadow: 0 8px 22px rgba(200,30,30,0.38);\n  color: #fff;\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 900px) {\n  .ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-flip-face {\n    padding: 24px 20px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-title {\n    font-size: 22px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-body {\n    font-size: 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-answer-row {\n    grid-template-columns: 1fr;\n  }\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 480px) {\n  .ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-flip-face {\n    padding: 20px 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-title {\n    font-size: 19px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-body {\n    font-size: 15px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-answer-text {\n    padding: 18px 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-btn {\n    width: 100%;\n    text-align: center;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-molecule-label {\n    font-size: 12px;\n    right: 10px;\n    top: 10px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-sulfate-thiosulfate-002 .ols-molecule-caption {\n    font-size: 12px;\n    left: 12px;\n    right: 12px;\n    bottom: 12px;\n  }\n}\n<\/style>\n\n<div class=\"ols-flip-card\" id=\"ols-card-sulfate-thiosulfate-002\">\n  <div class=\"ols-flip-inner\">\n\n    <div class=\"ols-flip-face ols-flip-front\">\n      <span class=\"ols-pill\">Practice Question<\/span>\n      <h2 class=\"ols-title\">Electron Pair Repulsion Theory<\/h2>\n      <div class=\"ols-line\"><\/div>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        In the sulphate ion, SO\u2084\u00b2\u207b, the sulphur atom accommodates twelve electrons in its outer shell.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        <strong>(b)<\/strong> Using electron pair repulsion theory, determine the most likely molecular shape of each of the following ions:\n      <\/p>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        <strong>(i)<\/strong> SO\u2084\u00b2\u207b<br>\n        <strong>(ii)<\/strong> S\u2082O\u2083\u00b2\u207b\n      <\/p>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        In both of these ions, two of the oxygen atoms each carry one additional electron.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <button class=\"ols-btn\" type=\"button\" onclick=\"olsFlipSulfateThiosulfate002()\">Show Answer<\/button>\n    <\/div>\n\n    <div class=\"ols-flip-face ols-flip-back\">\n      <span class=\"ols-pill\">Model Answer<\/span>\n      <h2 class=\"ols-title\">Molecular Shapes<\/h2>\n      <div class=\"ols-line\"><\/div>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-answer-row\">\n        <div class=\"ols-answer-text\">\n          <p class=\"ols-body\"><strong>(i) SO\u2084\u00b2\u207b &#8211; Tetrahedral<\/strong><\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            The central sulphur atom has four regions of electron density: four S-O bonding pairs.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            There are no lone pairs on the sulphur atom.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            According to electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR), four electron regions arrange tetrahedrally.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            Therefore, the molecular shape is tetrahedral with bond angles of approximately 109.5\u00b0.\n          <\/p>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <section class=\"ols-b3d b3d-mini\" data-b3d=\"mol-sulfate\"><div class=\"b3d-stage\" data-b3d-stage><canvas class=\"b3d-canvas\" aria-label=\"Sulphate ion, SO\u2084\u00b2\u207b: tetrahedral ion: interactive 3D model, drag to rotate\"><\/canvas><div class=\"b3d-hint\">Drag to rotate<\/div><\/div><div class=\"b3d-under\"><span class=\"b3d-name\">Sulphate ion, SO\u2084\u00b2\u207b: tetrahedral ion<\/span><span><button type=\"button\" class=\"b3d-pill\" data-b3d-pause aria-pressed=\"false\">Pause<\/button> <button type=\"button\" class=\"b3d-pill\" data-b3d-reset>Reset view<\/button><\/span><\/div><\/section>\n      <\/div>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-answer-row\">\n        <div class=\"ols-answer-text\">\n          <p class=\"ols-body\"><strong>(ii) S\u2082O\u2083\u00b2\u207b &#8211; Tetrahedral around the central sulphur atom<\/strong><\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            The central sulphur atom is bonded to three oxygen atoms and one sulphur atom.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            This gives four regions of electron density around the central sulphur.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            There are no lone pairs on the central sulphur atom.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            The electron pairs arrange tetrahedrally, giving a tetrahedral molecular shape around the central sulphur.\n          <\/p>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <section class=\"ols-b3d b3d-mini\" data-b3d=\"mol-thiosulfate\"><div class=\"b3d-stage\" data-b3d-stage><canvas class=\"b3d-canvas\" aria-label=\"Thiosulphate ion, S\u2082O\u2083\u00b2\u207b: tetrahedral around the central sulphur atom: interactive 3D model, drag to rotate\"><\/canvas><div class=\"b3d-hint\">Drag to rotate<\/div><\/div><div class=\"b3d-under\"><span class=\"b3d-name\">Thiosulphate ion, S\u2082O\u2083\u00b2\u207b: tetrahedral around the central sulphur atom<\/span><span><button type=\"button\" class=\"b3d-pill\" data-b3d-pause aria-pressed=\"false\">Pause<\/button> <button type=\"button\" class=\"b3d-pill\" data-b3d-reset>Reset view<\/button><\/span><\/div><\/section>\n      <\/div>\n\n      <button class=\"ols-btn\" type=\"button\" onclick=\"olsFlipSulfateThiosulfate002()\">Back to Question<\/button>\n    <\/div>\n\n  <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<\/div>\n\n<div id=\"olsb-ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003\" class=\"ols-flip-section ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003\">\n<style>\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 * {\n  box-sizing: border-box;\n  font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 {\n  max-width: 1100px;\n  margin: 0 auto 48px auto;\n  padding: 0 16px;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-flip-card {\n  perspective: 1600px;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-flip-inner {\n  position: relative;\n  transform-style: preserve-3d;\n  transition: transform 0.75s ease, height 0.4s ease;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-flip-card.is-flipped .ols-flip-inner {\n  transform: rotateY(180deg);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-flip-face {\n  width: 100%;\n  backface-visibility: hidden;\n  background: #F3F4F6;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  border-radius: 24px;\n  padding: 36px 40px;\n  box-shadow: 0 7px 18px rgba(0,0,0,0.07);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-flip-front {\n  position: relative;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-flip-back {\n  position: absolute;\n  top: 0;\n  left: 0;\n  transform: rotateY(180deg);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-pill {\n  display: inline-block;\n  background: #1C244B;\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 13px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  letter-spacing: 0.04em;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  padding: 6px 14px;\n  margin: 0 0 20px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-title {\n  margin: 0 0 8px 0;\n  font-size: 28px;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  line-height: 1.25;\n  color: #1C244B;\n  text-shadow: -9px 0 9px rgba(28,36,75,0.3);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-line {\n  width: 72px;\n  height: 4px;\n  background: #c81e1e;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  margin: 0 0 22px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-body {\n  font-size: 17px;\n  font-weight: 300;\n  line-height: 1.85;\n  color: #374151;\n  margin: 0 0 14px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-body strong {\n  color: #1C244B;\n  font-weight: 600;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-answer-row {\n  display: grid;\n  grid-template-columns: 1.05fr 0.95fr;\n  gap: 26px;\n  align-items: stretch;\n  margin: 26px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-answer-text {\n  background: #ffffff;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  border-radius: 18px;\n  padding: 22px 24px;\n  box-shadow: 0 4px 14px rgba(0,0,0,0.06);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-molecule-box {\n  position: relative;\n  width: 100%;\n  height: 300px;\n  background: #fff;\n  border-radius: 18px;\n  overflow: hidden;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  box-shadow: 0 4px 14px rgba(0,0,0,0.08);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-molecule-viewer {\n  width: 100%;\n  height: 300px;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-molecule-label {\n  position: absolute;\n  top: 15px;\n  right: 15px;\n  background: rgba(255,255,255,0.9);\n  color: #1C244B;\n  padding: 8px 12px;\n  border-radius: 8px;\n  font-size: 14px;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  box-shadow: 0 2px 8px rgba(0,0,0,0.15);\n  z-index: 10;\n  pointer-events: none;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-molecule-caption {\n  position: absolute;\n  left: 18px;\n  right: 18px;\n  bottom: 16px;\n  background: rgba(255,255,255,0.92);\n  color: #1C244B;\n  padding: 10px 14px;\n  border-radius: 12px;\n  font-size: 14px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  text-align: center;\n  box-shadow: 0 2px 8px rgba(0,0,0,0.12);\n  z-index: 10;\n  pointer-events: none;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-btn {\n  display: inline-block;\n  margin-top: 24px;\n  padding: 14px 32px;\n  background: #c81e1e;\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 15px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  border: none;\n  cursor: pointer;\n  box-shadow: 0 4px 14px rgba(200,30,30,0.3);\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 900px) {\n  .ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003 .ols-answer-row {\n    grid-template-columns: 1fr;\n  }\n}\n<\/style>\n\n<div class=\"ols-flip-card\" id=\"ols-card-s8-ring-003\">\n  <div class=\"ols-flip-inner\">\n\n    <div class=\"ols-flip-face ols-flip-front\">\n      <span class=\"ols-pill\">Practice Question<\/span>\n      <h2 class=\"ols-title\">Sulphur Ring Structure<\/h2>\n      <div class=\"ols-line\"><\/div>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        <strong>(c)<\/strong> Another important feature of sulphur chemistry is the ability of sulphur atoms to bond to one another.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        Naturally occurring sulphur exists as S\u2088 molecules, in which eight sulphur atoms are connected by single bonds to form a ring structure.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        Draw the structure of an S\u2088 ring, showing the likely three-dimensional shape of the molecule.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <button class=\"ols-btn\" onclick=\"olsFlipS8Ring003()\">Show Answer<\/button>\n    <\/div>\n\n    <div class=\"ols-flip-face ols-flip-back\">\n      <span class=\"ols-pill\">Model Answer<\/span>\n      <h2 class=\"ols-title\">S\u2088 Structure<\/h2>\n      <div class=\"ols-line\"><\/div>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-answer-row\">\n        <div class=\"ols-answer-text\">\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            S\u2088 forms a puckered ring (&#8220;crown&#8221;) structure.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            Eight sulphur atoms are joined by single S-S bonds in a ring.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            The ring is not planar; the atoms alternate above and below the plane to minimise electron pair repulsion.\n          <\/p>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <section class=\"ols-b3d b3d-mini\" data-b3d=\"mol-s8\"><div class=\"b3d-stage\" data-b3d-stage><canvas class=\"b3d-canvas\" aria-label=\"Cyclooctasulfur (S\u2088): puckered crown structure: interactive 3D model, drag to rotate\"><\/canvas><div class=\"b3d-hint\">Drag to rotate<\/div><\/div><div class=\"b3d-under\"><span class=\"b3d-name\">Cyclooctasulfur (S\u2088): puckered crown structure<\/span><span><button type=\"button\" class=\"b3d-pill\" data-b3d-pause aria-pressed=\"false\">Pause<\/button> <button type=\"button\" class=\"b3d-pill\" data-b3d-reset>Reset view<\/button><\/span><\/div><\/section>\n      <\/div>\n\n      <button class=\"ols-btn\" onclick=\"olsFlipS8Ring003()\">Back to Question<\/button>\n    <\/div>\n\n  <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<\/div>\n\n<div id=\"olsb-ols-flip-section-dithionite-004\" class=\"ols-flip-section ols-flip-section-dithionite-004\">\n<style>\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 * {\n  box-sizing: border-box;\n  font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 {\n  max-width: 1100px;\n  margin: 0 auto 48px auto;\n  padding: 0 16px;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-flip-card {\n  perspective: 1600px;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-flip-inner {\n  position: relative;\n  transform-style: preserve-3d;\n  transition: transform 0.75s ease, height 0.4s ease;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-flip-card.is-flipped .ols-flip-inner {\n  transform: rotateY(180deg);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-flip-face {\n  width: 100%;\n  backface-visibility: hidden;\n  background: #F3F4F6;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  border-radius: 24px;\n  padding: 36px 40px;\n  box-shadow: 0 7px 18px rgba(0,0,0,0.07);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-flip-front {\n  position: relative;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-flip-back {\n  position: absolute;\n  top: 0;\n  left: 0;\n  transform: rotateY(180deg);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-pill {\n  display: inline-block;\n  background: #1C244B;\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 13px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  letter-spacing: 0.04em;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  padding: 6px 14px;\n  margin: 0 0 20px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-title {\n  margin: 0 0 8px 0;\n  font-size: 28px;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  line-height: 1.25;\n  color: #1C244B;\n  text-shadow: -9px 0 9px rgba(28,36,75,0.3);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-line {\n  width: 72px;\n  height: 4px;\n  background: #c81e1e;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  margin: 0 0 22px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-body {\n  font-size: 17px;\n  font-weight: 300;\n  line-height: 1.85;\n  color: #374151;\n  margin: 0 0 14px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-body strong {\n  color: #1C244B;\n  font-weight: 600;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-masonry-grid {\n  column-count: 2;\n  column-gap: 26px;\n  margin: 26px 0;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 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center;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-molecule-box {\n  position: relative;\n  width: 100%;\n  height: 300px;\n  background: #fff;\n  border-radius: 18px;\n  overflow: hidden;\n  border: 1px solid #e5e7eb;\n  box-shadow: 0 4px 14px rgba(0,0,0,0.08);\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-molecule-viewer {\n  width: 100%;\n  height: 300px;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-molecule-label {\n  position: absolute;\n  top: 15px;\n  right: 15px;\n  background: rgba(255,255,255,0.9);\n  color: #1C244B;\n  padding: 8px 12px;\n  border-radius: 8px;\n  font-size: 14px;\n  font-weight: 600;\n  box-shadow: 0 2px 8px rgba(0,0,0,0.15);\n  z-index: 10;\n  pointer-events: none;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-molecule-caption {\n  position: absolute;\n  left: 18px;\n  right: 18px;\n  bottom: 16px;\n  background: rgba(255,255,255,0.92);\n  color: #1C244B;\n  padding: 10px 14px;\n  border-radius: 12px;\n  font-size: 14px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  line-height: 1.35;\n  text-align: center;\n  box-shadow: 0 2px 8px rgba(0,0,0,0.12);\n  z-index: 10;\n  pointer-events: none;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-btn {\n  display: inline-block;\n  margin-top: 24px;\n  padding: 14px 32px;\n  background: #c81e1e;\n  color: #fff;\n  font-size: 15px;\n  font-weight: 500;\n  border-radius: 999px;\n  text-decoration: none;\n  border: none;\n  cursor: pointer;\n  box-shadow: 0 4px 14px rgba(200,30,30,0.3);\n  transition: transform 0.15s ease, box-shadow 0.15s ease;\n}\n\n.ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-btn:hover {\n  transform: translateY(-2px);\n  box-shadow: 0 8px 22px rgba(200,30,30,0.38);\n  color: #fff;\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 900px) {\n  .ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-flip-face {\n    padding: 24px 20px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-title {\n    font-size: 22px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-body {\n    font-size: 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-masonry-grid {\n    column-count: 1;\n  }\n}\n\n@media (max-width: 480px) {\n  .ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-flip-face {\n    padding: 20px 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-title {\n    font-size: 19px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-body {\n    font-size: 15px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-answer-text,\n  .ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-image-card {\n    padding: 18px 16px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-btn {\n    width: 100%;\n    text-align: center;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-molecule-label {\n    font-size: 12px;\n    right: 10px;\n    top: 10px;\n  }\n\n  .ols-flip-section-dithionite-004 .ols-molecule-caption {\n    font-size: 12px;\n    left: 12px;\n    right: 12px;\n    bottom: 12px;\n  }\n}\n<\/style>\n\n<div class=\"ols-flip-card\" id=\"ols-card-dithionite-004\">\n  <div class=\"ols-flip-inner\">\n\n    <div class=\"ols-flip-face ols-flip-front\">\n      <span class=\"ols-pill\">Practice Question<\/span>\n      <h2 class=\"ols-title\">Dithionite Ion Structure<\/h2>\n      <div class=\"ols-line\"><\/div>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        The dithionite ion, S\u2082O\u2084\u00b2\u207b, is an example of an anion containing sulphur atoms that are directly linked together.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        It can be considered as two SO\u2082 groups joined by a sulphur-sulphur bond.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-body\">\n        <strong>(d)<\/strong> Draw the electron structure of the S\u2082O\u2084\u00b2\u207b ion and suggest the molecular shape around each sulphur atom.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <button class=\"ols-btn\" type=\"button\" onclick=\"olsFlipDithionite004()\">Show Answer<\/button>\n    <\/div>\n\n    <div class=\"ols-flip-face ols-flip-back\">\n      <span class=\"ols-pill\">Model Answer<\/span>\n      <h2 class=\"ols-title\">Dithionite Ion Shape<\/h2>\n      <div class=\"ols-line\"><\/div>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-masonry-grid\">\n\n        <div class=\"ols-answer-text\">\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            The dithionite ion, S\u2082O\u2084\u00b2\u207b, contains two sulphur atoms that are directly joined together by a single S-S bond.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            Each sulphur atom is also bonded to two oxygen atoms.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            To determine the shape around each sulphur atom, we consider the number of regions of electron density.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            Each sulphur atom has a bond to another sulphur atom (S-S), a double bond to an oxygen atom (S=O), a single bond to an oxygen atom (S-O\u207b), and one lone pair of electrons.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            This gives four regions of electron density around each sulphur atom.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            The electron pairs arrange themselves in a tetrahedral arrangement to minimise repulsion.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            Because one of these regions is a lone pair, the shape around each sulphur atom, considering the bonded atoms only, is trigonal pyramidal, with bond angles slightly less than 109.5\u00b0.\n          <\/p>\n\n          <p class=\"ols-body\">\n            In the structure, one oxygen attached to each sulphur forms a double bond (S=O), while the other oxygen forms a single bond (S-O\u207b) and carries a negative charge. This means the overall ion has a total charge of 2\u207b.\n          <\/p>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-image-card\">\n          <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-structure-img\"\n               src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/03\/Dithionite.png\"\n               alt=\"Electron structure of the dithionite ion S\u2082O\u2084\u00b2\u207b\">\n          <div class=\"ols-image-caption\">Simplified electron structure of S\u2082O\u2084\u00b2\u207b<\/div>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <section class=\"ols-b3d b3d-mini\" data-b3d=\"mol-dithionite\"><div class=\"b3d-stage\" data-b3d-stage><canvas class=\"b3d-canvas\" aria-label=\"Dithionite ion, S\u2082O\u2084\u00b2\u207b: trigonal pyramidal around each sulphur atom: interactive 3D model, drag to rotate\"><\/canvas><div class=\"b3d-hint\">Drag to rotate<\/div><\/div><div class=\"b3d-under\"><span class=\"b3d-name\">Dithionite ion, S\u2082O\u2084\u00b2\u207b: trigonal pyramidal around each sulphur atom<\/span><span><button type=\"button\" class=\"b3d-pill\" data-b3d-pause aria-pressed=\"false\">Pause<\/button> <button type=\"button\" class=\"b3d-pill\" data-b3d-reset>Reset view<\/button><\/span><\/div><\/section>\n\n      <\/div>\n\n      <button class=\"ols-btn\" type=\"button\" onclick=\"olsFlipDithionite004()\">Back to Question<\/button>\n    <\/div>\n\n  <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<\/div>\n    <\/article>\n    <aside class=\"olsb-side\">\n      <h3>In this article<\/h3>\n      <ul class=\"olsb-toc\"><li><a href=\"#olsb-ols-info-section-t1-000\">How Do Scientists Know the Structure of Metal Crystals?<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#olsb-ols-info-section-xray-001\">Using X-Rays to Investigate Crystal Structures<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#olsb-ols-info-section-fcc-006\">The Unit Cell in Metal Crystals<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#olsb-ols-info-section-bcc-005\">Body-Centred Cubic Structures<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#olsb-ols-info-section-extension-001\">Sulphur Chemistry and Molecular Shapes<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#olsb-ols-flip-section-so2-sulfite-007\">Electron Pair Repulsion Theory<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#olsb-ols-flip-section-s8-ring-003\">Sulphur Ring Structure<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#olsb-ols-flip-section-dithionite-004\">Dithionite Ion Structure<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n      \n    <\/aside>\n  <\/section>\n\n  <section class=\"olsb-more\" aria-label=\"Keep reading\">\n    <h2>Keep reading<\/h2>\n    <div class=\"olsb-reads\"><a class=\"olsb-read-card\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/chemistry-blog\/infrared-spectroscopy-a-level-chemistry\/\"><span class=\"olsb-read-img\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/03\/infrared-spectroscopy-greenhouse-effect-illustration.png\" alt=\"Infrared Spectroscopy\" loading=\"lazy\"><\/span><span class=\"olsb-read-body\"><span class=\"olsb-read-label\">Analytical Chemistry<\/span><strong>Infrared Spectroscopy<\/strong><span class=\"olsb-read-desc\">How bond stretching, bending and changing dipole moments let molecules absorb infrared radiation, from greenhouse gases to interactive SO\u2082, CO\u2082 and CH\u2084 vibrations.<\/span><span class=\"olsb-read-more\">Read article &rarr;<\/span><\/span><\/a><a class=\"olsb-read-card\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/chemistry-blog\/football-materials-science\/\"><span class=\"olsb-read-img\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/06\/football.jpg\" alt=\"The Science Inside a World Cup Football infographic\" loading=\"lazy\"><\/span><span class=\"olsb-read-body\"><span class=\"olsb-read-label\">Sports Engineering<\/span><strong>The Science Inside a World Cup Football<\/strong><span class=\"olsb-read-desc\">Explore the layered materials inside a professional football and how modern engineering shapes touch, flight, bounce and durability.<\/span><span class=\"olsb-read-more\">Read article &rarr;<\/span><\/span><\/a><a class=\"olsb-read-card\" href=\"https:\/\/www.a-levelchemistry.co.uk\/development-of-the-modern-atomic-model.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"olsb-read-img\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/Erwin-Schrodinger.webp\" alt=\"Erwin Schrodinger and the development of the modern atomic model\" loading=\"lazy\"><\/span><span class=\"olsb-read-body\"><span class=\"olsb-read-label\">Atomic Structure<\/span><strong>Development of the Modern Atomic Model<\/strong><span class=\"olsb-read-desc\">From Dalton\u2019s solid spheres to Schrodinger\u2019s quantum mechanical model: how Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr and Schrodinger changed our picture of the atom.<\/span><span class=\"olsb-read-more\">Read on a-levelchemistry.co.uk &rarr;<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/div>\n  <\/section>\n<\/main>\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"olsb-lightbox\" aria-hidden=\"true\" role=\"dialog\" aria-label=\"How X-Rays Reveal the Structure of Metal Crystals\">\n  <button class=\"olsb-lightbox-close\" type=\"button\" aria-label=\"Close\">&times;<\/button>\n  <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/03\/ChatGPT-Image-Mar-8-2026-05_43_16-PM.jpg\" alt=\"X-rays revealing the structure of metal crystals through diffraction patterns\">\n<\/div>\n<script src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/ols-blog\/how-x-rays-reveal-the-structure-of-metal-crystals.js?v=0811930888\" data-no-optimize=\"1\" data-cfasync=\"false\" data-pagespeed-no-defer nowprocket><\/script>\n\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Crystal Structures How X-Rays Reveal the Structure of Metal Crystals Explore the structure of metal crystals and how X-ray diffraction reveals their atomic arrangements. Learn about common crystal lattices such as face-centred and body-centred cubic structures, and how theories like electron pair repulsion help explain the molecular shapes of sulphur compounds. Crystal Structures How Do [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":12,"featured_media":1315,"parent":1145,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-17203","page","type-page","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/17203","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/12"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=17203"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/17203\/revisions"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1145"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=17203"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}