{"id":4498,"date":"2026-05-28T05:24:43","date_gmt":"2026-05-28T04:24:43","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/"},"modified":"2026-06-01T08:42:25","modified_gmt":"2026-06-01T07:42:25","slug":"topic-2-bonding-and-structure","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/","title":{"rendered":"Topic 2 &#8211; Bonding and Structure"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<div class=\"ols-t2-page\">\n\n  <aside class=\"ols-sidebar\">\r\n  <div class=\"ols-sidebar-header\">\r\n    <h3>Revision Notes<\/h3>\r\n    <p>A Level Chemistry<\/p>\r\n  <\/div>\r\n\r\n  <div class=\"ols-topic-group\">\r\n    <h4>Topic 2 Bonding and Structure<\/h4>\r\n\r\n    <ul class=\"ols-topic-list\">\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/\">Ionic Bonding<\/a>\r\n\r\n        <ul class=\"ols-subtopic-list\">\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/nature-of-ionic-bonding\/\">Nature of Ionic Bonding<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/polarisation-of-ions\/\">Polarisation of Ions<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/physical-properties-of-ionic-compounds\/\">Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n        <\/ul>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/\">Covalent Bonding<\/a>\r\n\r\n        <ul class=\"ols-subtopic-list\">\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/nature-of-covalent-bonding\/\">Nature of Covalent Bonding<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/dative-covalent-bonding\/\">Dative Covalent Bonding<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/electronegativity\/\">Electronegativity<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n        <\/ul>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/\">Shapes of Molecules<\/a>\r\n\r\n        <ul class=\"ols-subtopic-list\">\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/linear\/\">Linear<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/trigonal-planar\/\">Trigonal Planar<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/tetrahedral\/\">Tetrahedral<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/trigonal-pyramidal\/\">Trigonal Pyramidal<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/bent\/\">Bent<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/trigonal-bipyramidal\/\">Trigonal Bipyramidal<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/octahedral\/\">Octahedral<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/square-planar\/\">Square Planar<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/square-pyramidal\/\">Square Pyramidal<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/distorted-t\/\">Distorted T<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/seesaw\/\">SeeSaw<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n        <\/ul>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/polar-molecules\/\">Polar Molecules<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/metallic-bonding\/\">Metallic Bonding<\/a>\r\n\r\n        <ul class=\"ols-subtopic-list\">\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/metallic-bonding\/metallic-bonding-and-structure\/\">Metallic Bonding and Structure<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/metallic-bonding\/physical-properties-of-metals\/\">Physical Properties of Metals<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n        <\/ul>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/intermolecular-forces\/\">Intermolecular Forces<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/structure-types\/\">Structure Types<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n    <\/ul>\r\n  <\/div>\r\n\r\n  <div class=\"ols-topic-group\">\r\n    <h4>Next Topics<\/h4>\r\n\r\n    <ul class=\"ols-topic-list\">\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a 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 }\n    }\n\n    @media (max-width: 640px) {\n      .ols-t2-intro {\n        padding: 24px 0 52px;\n      }\n\n      .ols-t2-topics {\n        padding: 52px 0 58px;\n      }\n\n      .ols-t2-cards-grid {\n        grid-template-columns: 1fr;\n        gap: 14px;\n      }\n\n      .ols-t2-spec-section {\n        padding: 52px 0 64px;\n      }\n\n      .ols-t2-spec-wrap {\n        padding: 24px 18px;\n        border-radius: 20px;\n      }\n\n      .ols-t2-info-grid {\n        grid-template-columns: 1fr 1fr;\n      }\n    }\n\n  <\/style>\n\n  <!-- BREADCRUMB BAR - sits above everything -->\n  <div class=\"ols-t2-breadcrumb-bar\">\n    <div class=\"ols-t2-container\">\n      <nav class=\"ols-t2-breadcrumb\" aria-label=\"Breadcrumb\">\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/\">Revision Notes<\/a> \/\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/\">A Level Chemistry<\/a> \/\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/\">Edexcel<\/a> \/\n        <span>Topic 2 Bonding and Structure<\/span>\n      <\/nav>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/div>\n\n  <!-- INTRO -->\n  <section class=\"ols-t2-intro\">\n    <div class=\"ols-t2-container\">\n      <div class=\"ols-t2-intro-inner\">\n\n        <div>\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-eyebrow\">Edexcel A Level Chemistry<\/div>\n          <h1>Topic 2<br>Bonding<br>and Structure<\/h1>\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-accent-bar\"><\/div>\n          <p class=\"ols-t2-intro-lead\">\n            Topic 2 explains how particles are held together and how bonding affects structure and physical properties. This topic covers ionic bonding, covalent bonding, molecular shapes, electronegativity, polarity, intermolecular forces, solvent choice, metallic bonding and the relationship between structure and behaviour.\n          <\/p>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-t2-info-grid\">\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-info-card\">\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-info-card-label\">Exam Papers<\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-info-card-value\">Paper 1 &amp; 2<\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-info-card-sub\">9CH0\/01 and 9CH0\/02<\/div>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-info-card\">\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-info-card-label\">Specification Points<\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-info-card-value\">2.1 &#8211; 2.27<\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-info-card-sub\">27 points covered<\/div>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-info-card\">\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-info-card-label\">Topic Parts<\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-info-card-value\">7 parts<\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-info-card-sub\">Revision notes available<\/div>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-info-card\">\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-info-card-label\">Exam Board<\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-info-card-value\">Edexcel<\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-info-card-sub\">Pearson 9CH0<\/div>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n\n      <\/div>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/section>\n\n  <!-- TOPIC CARDS -->\n  <section class=\"ols-t2-topics\">\n    <div class=\"ols-t2-container\">\n\n      <div class=\"ols-t2-section-header\">\n        <h2 class=\"ols-t2-section-title\">Revision Notes<\/h2>\n        <p class=\"ols-t2-section-sub\">Work through each part of Edexcel Topic 2 in a structured sequence.<\/p>\n      <\/div>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-t2-cards-grid\">\n\n        <!-- Card 1: Ionic Bonding -->\n        <a class=\"ols-t2-card ols-t2-card--available\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/\">\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-card-img-wrap\">\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-visual ols-t2-visual--ionic\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-panel\">\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-kicker\">Ions and lattices<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-main\">Ionic<br>Bonding<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-molecule-row\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n                  <span class=\"ols-t2-ion\">Na<sup>+<\/sup><\/span><span class=\"ols-t2-bond\"><\/span><span class=\"ols-t2-ion\">Cl<sup>&#8211;<\/sup><\/span>\n                <\/div>\n              <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-card-num\">1<\/div>\n            <span class=\"ols-t2-card-status ols-t2-card-status--available\">Available<\/span>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-card-body\">\n            <p class=\"ols-t2-card-title\">Ionic Bonding<\/p>\n            <p class=\"ols-t2-card-desc\">Ion formation, dot-and-cross diagrams, ionic lattices, ionic radius, ionic charge, ion migration and physical properties.<\/p>\n            <span class=\"ols-t2-card-cta\">\n              Start revising\n              <svg viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><path d=\"M3 8h10M9 4l4 4-4 4\"><\/path><\/svg>\n            <\/span>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/a>\n        <!-- Card 2: Covalent Bonding -->\n        <a class=\"ols-t2-card ols-t2-card--available\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/\">\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-card-img-wrap\">\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-visual ols-t2-visual--covalent\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-panel\">\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-kicker\">Shared electrons<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-main\">Covalent<br>Bonds<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-molecule-row\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n                  <span class=\"ols-t2-atom\"><\/span><span class=\"ols-t2-bond\"><\/span><span class=\"ols-t2-atom\"><\/span><span class=\"ols-t2-bond\"><\/span><span class=\"ols-t2-atom\"><\/span>\n                <\/div>\n              <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-card-num\">2<\/div>\n            <span class=\"ols-t2-card-status ols-t2-card-status--available\">Available<\/span>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-card-body\">\n            <p class=\"ols-t2-card-title\">Covalent Bonding<\/p>\n            <p class=\"ols-t2-card-desc\">Covalent attraction, dot-and-cross diagrams, bond length, bond strength and dative covalent bonding.<\/p>\n            <span class=\"ols-t2-card-cta\">\n              Start revising\n              <svg viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><path d=\"M3 8h10M9 4l4 4-4 4\"><\/path><\/svg>\n            <\/span>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/a>\n        <!-- Card 3: Shapes of Molecules -->\n        <a class=\"ols-t2-card ols-t2-card--available\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/\">\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-card-img-wrap\">\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-visual ols-t2-visual--shape\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-panel\">\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-kicker\">Electron pairs<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-shape\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n                  <span><\/span>\n                  <span><\/span>\n                  <span><\/span>\n                  <span><\/span>\n                <\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-main\">Molecular<br>Shapes<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-sub\">bond angles and 3D arrangement<\/div>\n              <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-card-num\">3<\/div>\n            <span class=\"ols-t2-card-status ols-t2-card-status--available\">Available<\/span>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-card-body\">\n            <p class=\"ols-t2-card-title\">Shapes of Molecules<\/p>\n            <p class=\"ols-t2-card-desc\">Electron-pair repulsion theory, bond angles and predicting the shapes of molecules and ions.<\/p>\n            <span class=\"ols-t2-card-cta\">\n              Start revising\n              <svg viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><path d=\"M3 8h10M9 4l4 4-4 4\"><\/path><\/svg>\n            <\/span>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/a>\n        <!-- Card 4: Polar Molecules -->\n        <a class=\"ols-t2-card ols-t2-card--available\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/polar-molecules\/\">\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-card-img-wrap\">\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-visual ols-t2-visual--polar\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-panel\">\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-kicker\">Bond polarity<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-main\">Polar<br>Molecules<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-molecule-row\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n                  <span class=\"ols-t2-ion\">\u03b4+<\/span><span class=\"ols-t2-bond\"><\/span><span class=\"ols-t2-ion\">\u03b4-<\/span>\n                <\/div>\n              <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-card-num\">4<\/div>\n            <span class=\"ols-t2-card-status ols-t2-card-status--available\">Available<\/span>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-card-body\">\n            <p class=\"ols-t2-card-title\">Polar Molecules<\/p>\n            <p class=\"ols-t2-card-desc\">Electronegativity, polar bonds, non-polar molecules and using molecular symmetry to predict overall polarity.<\/p>\n            <span class=\"ols-t2-card-cta\">\n              Start revising\n              <svg viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><path d=\"M3 8h10M9 4l4 4-4 4\"><\/path><\/svg>\n            <\/span>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/a>\n        <!-- Card 5: Metallic Bonding -->\n        <a class=\"ols-t2-card ols-t2-card--available\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/metallic-bonding\/\">\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-card-img-wrap\">\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-visual ols-t2-visual--metallic\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-panel\">\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-kicker\">Metallic lattice<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-electron-dot\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-main\">Metallic<br>Bonding<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-sub\">metal ions and delocalised electrons<\/div>\n              <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-card-num\">5<\/div>\n            <span class=\"ols-t2-card-status ols-t2-card-status--available\">Available<\/span>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-card-body\">\n            <p class=\"ols-t2-card-title\">Metallic Bonding<\/p>\n            <p class=\"ols-t2-card-desc\">Giant metallic lattices, metal ions, delocalised electrons, electrical conductivity and melting temperature.<\/p>\n            <span class=\"ols-t2-card-cta\">\n              Start revising\n              <svg viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><path d=\"M3 8h10M9 4l4 4-4 4\"><\/path><\/svg>\n            <\/span>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/a>\n        <!-- Card 6: Intermolecular Forces -->\n        <a class=\"ols-t2-card ols-t2-card--available\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/intermolecular-forces\/\">\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-card-img-wrap\">\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-visual ols-t2-visual--intermolecular\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-panel\">\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-kicker\">Between molecules<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-main\">Intermolecular<br>Forces<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-molecule-row\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n                  <span class=\"ols-t2-atom\"><\/span><span class=\"ols-t2-bond\"><\/span><span class=\"ols-t2-atom\"><\/span>\n                <\/div>\n              <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-card-num\">6<\/div>\n            <span class=\"ols-t2-card-status ols-t2-card-status--available\">Available<\/span>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-card-body\">\n            <p class=\"ols-t2-card-title\">Intermolecular Forces<\/p>\n            <p class=\"ols-t2-card-desc\">London forces, permanent dipole-dipole forces, hydrogen bonding and boiling temperature trends.<\/p>\n            <span class=\"ols-t2-card-cta\">\n              Start revising\n              <svg viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><path d=\"M3 8h10M9 4l4 4-4 4\"><\/path><\/svg>\n            <\/span>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/a>\n        <!-- Card 7: Structure Types -->\n        <a class=\"ols-t2-card ols-t2-card--available\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/structure-types\/\">\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-card-img-wrap\">\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-visual ols-t2-visual--structure\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-panel\">\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-kicker\">Structure and properties<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-shape\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n                  <span><\/span>\n                  <span><\/span>\n                  <span><\/span>\n                  <span><\/span>\n                <\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-main\">Structure<br>Types<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-t2-visual-sub\">bonding, particles and properties<\/div>\n              <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-card-num\">7<\/div>\n            <span class=\"ols-t2-card-status ols-t2-card-status--available\">Available<\/span>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-card-body\">\n            <p class=\"ols-t2-card-title\">Structure Types<\/p>\n            <p class=\"ols-t2-card-desc\">Giant ionic, giant covalent, giant metallic and simple molecular structures linked to physical properties.<\/p>\n            <span class=\"ols-t2-card-cta\">\n              Start revising\n              <svg viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><path d=\"M3 8h10M9 4l4 4-4 4\"><\/path><\/svg>\n            <\/span>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/a>\n\n      <\/div>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/section>\n\n  <!-- SPECIFICATION -->\n  <section class=\"ols-t2-spec-section\">\n    <div class=\"ols-t2-container\">\n\n      <!-- DESKTOP SPECIFICATION -->\n      <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-desktop\">\n        <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-wrap\">\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-pill\">Specification Coverage<\/div>\n          <h2 class=\"ols-t2-spec-heading\">Topic 2 Bonding and Structure &#8211; Edexcel A Level Chemistry<\/h2>\n          <p class=\"ols-t2-spec-intro-text\">The following specification points outline the knowledge and skills students are expected to demonstrate for Topic 2.<\/p>\n\n          <h3 class=\"ols-t2-spec-group-title\">2A: Bonding<\/h3>\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-rows\">\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.1<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">know that ionic bonding is the strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.2<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">understand the effects that ionic radius and ionic charge have on the strength of ionic bonding<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.3<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">understand the formation of ions in terms of electron loss or gain<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.4<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">be able to draw electronic configuration diagrams of cations and anions using dot-and-cross diagrams<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.5<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">understand reasons for the trends in ionic radii down a group and for a set of isoelectronic ions, e.g. N<sup>3-<\/sup> to Al<sup>3+<\/sup><\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.6<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">understand that the physical properties of ionic compounds and the migration of ions provide evidence for the existence of ions<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.7<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">know that a covalent bond is the strong electrostatic attraction between two nuclei and the shared pair of electrons between them<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--mid\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--mid\">2.8<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">be able to draw dot-and-cross diagrams to show electrons in covalent substances, including:<div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-list\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">i<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">molecules with single, double and triple bonds<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">ii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">species exhibiting dative covalent, coordinate, bonding, including Al<sub>2<\/sub>Cl<sub>6<\/sub> and ammonium ion<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.9<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">understand the relationship between bond lengths and bond strengths for covalent bonds<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.10<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">understand that the shape of a simple molecule or ion is determined by the repulsion between the electron pairs that surround a central atom<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.11<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">understand reasons for the shapes of, and bond angles in, simple molecules and ions with up to six outer pairs of electrons, any combination of bonding pairs and lone pairs. Examples should include BeCl<sub>2<\/sub>, BCl<sub>3<\/sub>, CH<sub>4<\/sub>, NH<sub>3<\/sub>, NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup>, H<sub>2<\/sub>O, CO<sub>2<\/sub>, PCl<sub>5<\/sub>(g) and SF<sub>6<\/sub>(g) and related molecules and ions; as well as simple organic molecules in this specification.<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.12<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">be able to predict the shapes of, and bond angles in, simple molecules and ions analogous to those specified above using electron-pair repulsion theory<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.13<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">know that electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract the bonding electrons in a covalent bond<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.14<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">know that ionic and covalent bonding are the extremes of a continuum of bonding type and that electronegativity differences lead to bond polarity in bonds and molecules<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.15<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">understand that molecules with polar bonds may not be polar molecules and be able to predict whether or not a given molecule is likely to be polar<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--mid\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--mid\">2.16<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">understand the nature of intermolecular forces resulting from the following interactions:<div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-list\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">i<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">London forces, instantaneous dipole-induced dipole<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">ii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">permanent dipoles<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">iii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">hydrogen bonds<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.17<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">understand the interactions in molecules, such as H<sub>2<\/sub>O, liquid NH<sub>3<\/sub> and liquid HF, which give rise to hydrogen bonding<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--mid\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--mid\">2.18<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">understand the following anomalous properties of water resulting from hydrogen bonding:<div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-list\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">i<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">its relatively high melting temperature and boiling temperature<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">ii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">the density of ice compared to that of water<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.19<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">be able to predict the presence of hydrogen bonding in molecules analogous to those mentioned above<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--mid\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--mid\">2.20<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">understand, in terms of intermolecular forces, physical properties shown by materials, including:<div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-list\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">i<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">the trends in boiling temperatures of alkanes with increasing chain length<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">ii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">the effect of branching in the carbon chain on the boiling temperatures of alkanes<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">iii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">the relatively low volatility, higher boiling temperatures, of alcohols compared to alkanes with a similar number of electrons<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">iv<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">the trends in boiling temperatures of the hydrogen halides, HF to HI<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--mid\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--mid\">2.21<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">understand factors that influence the choice of solvents, including:<div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-list\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">i<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">water, to dissolve some ionic compounds, in terms of the hydration of the ions<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">ii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">water, to dissolve simple alcohols, in terms of hydrogen bonding<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">iii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">water, as a poor solvent for compounds, to include polar molecules such as halogenoalkanes, in terms of inability to form hydrogen bonds<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">iv<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">non-aqueous solvents, for compounds that have similar intermolecular forces to those in the solvent<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.22<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">know that metallic bonding is the strong electrostatic attraction between metal ions and the delocalised electrons<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--mid\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--mid\">Practical<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\"><strong>Possible practicals:<\/strong> investigating the migration of ions, for example in a U-tube of copper(II) chromate, and seeing the effect of a charged rod on a flow of water.<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n          <\/div>\n          <h3 class=\"ols-t2-spec-group-title\">2B: Structure<\/h3>\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-rows\">\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--mid\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--mid\">2.23<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">know that giant lattices are present in:<div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-list\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">i<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">ionic solids, giant ionic lattices<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">ii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">covalently bonded solids, such as diamond, graphite and silicon(IV) oxide, giant covalent lattices<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">iii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">solid metals, giant metallic lattices<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.24<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">know that the structure of covalently bonded substances such as iodine, I<sub>2<\/sub>, and ice, H<sub>2<\/sub>O, is simple molecular<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.25<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">know the different structures formed by carbon atoms, including graphite, diamond and graphene<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--dark\">2.26<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">be able to predict the type of structure and bonding present in a substance from numerical data and\/or other information<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-row ols-t2-spec-row--mid\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-code ols-t2-spec-code--mid\">2.27<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-text\">be able to predict the physical properties of a substance, including melting and boiling temperature, electrical conductivity and solubility in water, in terms of:<div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-list\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">i<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">the types of particle present, atoms, molecules, ions, electrons<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">ii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">the structure of the substance<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-code\">iii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-sub-text\">the type of bonding and the presence of intermolecular forces, where relevant<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/div>\n\n      <!-- MOBILE SPECIFICATION -->\n      <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mobile\">\n        <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-wrap\">\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-pill\">Specification Coverage<\/div>\n          <h2 class=\"ols-t2-spec-heading\">Topic 2 Bonding and Structure &#8211; Edexcel A Level Chemistry<\/h2>\n          <p class=\"ols-t2-spec-intro-text\">The following specification points outline the knowledge and skills students are expected to demonstrate for Topic 2.<\/p>\n\n          <h3 class=\"ols-t2-spec-group-title\">2A: Bonding<\/h3>\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-rows\">\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.1<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">know that ionic bonding is the strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.2<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">understand the effects that ionic radius and ionic charge have on the strength of ionic bonding<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.3<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">understand the formation of ions in terms of electron loss or gain<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.4<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">be able to draw electronic configuration diagrams of cations and anions using dot-and-cross diagrams<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.5<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">understand reasons for the trends in ionic radii down a group and for a set of isoelectronic ions, e.g. N<sup>3-<\/sup> to Al<sup>3+<\/sup><\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.6<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">understand that the physical properties of ionic compounds and the migration of ions provide evidence for the existence of ions<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.7<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">know that a covalent bond is the strong electrostatic attraction between two nuclei and the shared pair of electrons between them<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--mid\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code ols-t2-spec-mob-code--mid\">2.8<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">be able to draw dot-and-cross diagrams to show electrons in covalent substances, including:<div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-list\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">i<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">molecules with single, double and triple bonds<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">ii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">species exhibiting dative covalent, coordinate, bonding, including Al<sub>2<\/sub>Cl<sub>6<\/sub> and ammonium ion<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.9<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">understand the relationship between bond lengths and bond strengths for covalent bonds<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.10<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">understand that the shape of a simple molecule or ion is determined by the repulsion between the electron pairs that surround a central atom<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.11<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">understand reasons for the shapes of, and bond angles in, simple molecules and ions with up to six outer pairs of electrons, any combination of bonding pairs and lone pairs. Examples should include BeCl<sub>2<\/sub>, BCl<sub>3<\/sub>, CH<sub>4<\/sub>, NH<sub>3<\/sub>, NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup>, H<sub>2<\/sub>O, CO<sub>2<\/sub>, PCl<sub>5<\/sub>(g) and SF<sub>6<\/sub>(g) and related molecules and ions; as well as simple organic molecules in this specification.<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.12<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">be able to predict the shapes of, and bond angles in, simple molecules and ions analogous to those specified above using electron-pair repulsion theory<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.13<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">know that electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract the bonding electrons in a covalent bond<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.14<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">know that ionic and covalent bonding are the extremes of a continuum of bonding type and that electronegativity differences lead to bond polarity in bonds and molecules<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.15<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">understand that molecules with polar bonds may not be polar molecules and be able to predict whether or not a given molecule is likely to be polar<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--mid\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code ols-t2-spec-mob-code--mid\">2.16<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">understand the nature of intermolecular forces resulting from the following interactions:<div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-list\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">i<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">London forces, instantaneous dipole-induced dipole<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">ii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">permanent dipoles<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">iii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">hydrogen bonds<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.17<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">understand the interactions in molecules, such as H<sub>2<\/sub>O, liquid NH<sub>3<\/sub> and liquid HF, which give rise to hydrogen bonding<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--mid\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code ols-t2-spec-mob-code--mid\">2.18<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">understand the following anomalous properties of water resulting from hydrogen bonding:<div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-list\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">i<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">its relatively high melting temperature and boiling temperature<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">ii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">the density of ice compared to that of water<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.19<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">be able to predict the presence of hydrogen bonding in molecules analogous to those mentioned above<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--mid\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code ols-t2-spec-mob-code--mid\">2.20<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">understand, in terms of intermolecular forces, physical properties shown by materials, including:<div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-list\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">i<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">the trends in boiling temperatures of alkanes with increasing chain length<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">ii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">the effect of branching in the carbon chain on the boiling temperatures of alkanes<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">iii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">the relatively low volatility, higher boiling temperatures, of alcohols compared to alkanes with a similar number of electrons<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">iv<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">the trends in boiling temperatures of the hydrogen halides, HF to HI<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--mid\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code ols-t2-spec-mob-code--mid\">2.21<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">understand factors that influence the choice of solvents, including:<div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-list\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">i<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">water, to dissolve some ionic compounds, in terms of the hydration of the ions<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">ii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">water, to dissolve simple alcohols, in terms of hydrogen bonding<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">iii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">water, as a poor solvent for compounds, to include polar molecules such as halogenoalkanes, in terms of inability to form hydrogen bonds<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">iv<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">non-aqueous solvents, for compounds that have similar intermolecular forces to those in the solvent<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.22<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">know that metallic bonding is the strong electrostatic attraction between metal ions and the delocalised electrons<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--mid\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code ols-t2-spec-mob-code--mid\">Practical<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\"><strong>Possible practicals:<\/strong> investigating the migration of ions, for example in a U-tube of copper(II) chromate, and seeing the effect of a charged rod on a flow of water.<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n          <\/div>\n          <h3 class=\"ols-t2-spec-group-title\">2B: Structure<\/h3>\n          <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-rows\">\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--mid\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code ols-t2-spec-mob-code--mid\">2.23<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">know that giant lattices are present in:<div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-list\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">i<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">ionic solids, giant ionic lattices<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">ii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">covalently bonded solids, such as diamond, graphite and silicon(IV) oxide, giant covalent lattices<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">iii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">solid metals, giant metallic lattices<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.24<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">know that the structure of covalently bonded substances such as iodine, I<sub>2<\/sub>, and ice, H<sub>2<\/sub>O, is simple molecular<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.25<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">know the different structures formed by carbon atoms, including graphite, diamond and graphene<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--light\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code\">2.26<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">be able to predict the type of structure and bonding present in a substance from numerical data and\/or other information<\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-row ols-t2-spec-mob-row--mid\">\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-code ols-t2-spec-mob-code--mid\">2.27<\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-text\">be able to predict the physical properties of a substance, including melting and boiling temperature, electrical conductivity and solubility in water, in terms of:<div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-list\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">i<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">the types of particle present, atoms, molecules, ions, electrons<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">ii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">the structure of the substance<\/div><\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-row\"><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-code\">iii<\/div><div class=\"ols-t2-spec-mob-sub-text\">the type of bonding and the presence of intermolecular forces, where relevant<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n          <\/div>\n\n        <\/div>\n      <\/div>\n\n    <\/div>\n  <\/section>\n\n\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\">\n{\n  \"@context\": \"https:\/\/schema.org\",\n  \"@graph\": [\n    {\n      \"@type\": \"WebPage\",\n      \"@id\": 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This topic covers ionic bonding, covalent bonding, molecular shapes, electronegativity, polarity, intermolecular forces, solvent choice, metallic bonding and [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":12,"featured_media":0,"parent":1784,"menu_order":1,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"productId":0,"courseId":0,"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-4498","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4498","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/12"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=4498"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4498\/revisions"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1784"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4498"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}