{"id":4579,"date":"2026-05-30T06:12:30","date_gmt":"2026-05-30T05:12:30","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/physical-properties-of-ionic-compounds\/"},"modified":"2026-06-01T11:09:27","modified_gmt":"2026-06-01T10:09:27","slug":"physical-properties-of-ionic-compounds","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/physical-properties-of-ionic-compounds\/","title":{"rendered":"Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<section class=\"ols-revision-page ols-physical-properties-ionic-compounds-page\">\n  <style>\n     .ols-revision-page {\n      --navy: #1C244B;\n      --blue: #2563eb;\n      --soft-blue: #eef4ff;\n      --soft-red: #fff7f7;\n      --soft-purple: #f7f0ff;\n      --soft-green: #f0f7f1;\n      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class=\"ols-subtopic-list\">\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/nature-of-ionic-bonding\/\">Nature of Ionic Bonding<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/polarisation-of-ions\/\">Polarisation of Ions<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/physical-properties-of-ionic-compounds\/\">Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n        <\/ul>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/\">Covalent Bonding<\/a>\r\n\r\n        <ul class=\"ols-subtopic-list\">\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/nature-of-covalent-bonding\/\">Nature of Covalent Bonding<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/dative-covalent-bonding\/\">Dative Covalent Bonding<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/electronegativity\/\">Electronegativity<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n        <\/ul>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/\">Shapes of Molecules<\/a>\r\n\r\n        <ul class=\"ols-subtopic-list\">\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/linear\/\">Linear<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/trigonal-planar\/\">Trigonal Planar<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/tetrahedral\/\">Tetrahedral<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/trigonal-pyramidal\/\">Trigonal Pyramidal<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/bent\/\">Bent<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/trigonal-bipyramidal\/\">Trigonal Bipyramidal<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/octahedral\/\">Octahedral<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/square-planar\/\">Square Planar<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/square-pyramidal\/\">Square Pyramidal<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/distorted-t\/\">Distorted T<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/seesaw\/\">SeeSaw<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n        <\/ul>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/polar-molecules\/\">Polar Molecules<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/metallic-bonding\/\">Metallic Bonding<\/a>\r\n\r\n        <ul class=\"ols-subtopic-list\">\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/metallic-bonding\/metallic-bonding-and-structure\/\">Metallic Bonding and Structure<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/metallic-bonding\/physical-properties-of-metals\/\">Physical Properties of Metals<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n        <\/ul>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/intermolecular-forces\/\">Intermolecular Forces<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/structure-types\/\">Structure Types<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n    <\/ul>\r\n  <\/div>\r\n\r\n  <div class=\"ols-topic-group\">\r\n    <h4>Next Topics<\/h4>\r\n\r\n    <ul class=\"ols-topic-list\">\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-3-redox-i\/\">Redox I<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-4-inorganic-chemistry-and-the-periodic-table\/\">Inorganic Chemistry &amp; The Periodic Table<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-5-formulae-equations-and-amounts-of-substance\/\">Formulae, Equations &amp; Amounts<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n    <\/ul>\r\n  <\/div>\r\n<\/aside>\r\n\r\n<script>\r\n(function() {\r\n  function normalisePath(path) {\r\n    return String(path || '')\r\n      .split('?')[0]\r\n      .split('#')[0]\r\n      .replace(\/\\\/+$\/, '')\r\n      .toLowerCase();\r\n  }\r\n\r\n  function highlightActive() {\r\n    var sidebar = document.querySelector('.ols-sidebar');\r\n    if (!sidebar) return false;\r\n\r\n    var currentPath = normalisePath(window.location.pathname);\r\n    var links = sidebar.querySelectorAll('a[href]');\r\n    var matched = null;\r\n    var matchedLength = 0;\r\n\r\n    sidebar.querySelectorAll('.active, .active-main, .parent-active').forEach(function(item) {\r\n      item.classList.remove('active', 'active-main', 'parent-active');\r\n  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if (!highlightActive()) {\r\n    document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', highlightActive);\r\n  }\r\n})();\r\n<\/script>\n\n  <main class=\"ols-main\">\n      <nav class=\"ols-breadcrumbs\" aria-label=\"Breadcrumb\">\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/\">Revision Notes<\/a> \/\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/\">A Level Chemistry<\/a> \/\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/\">Edexcel<\/a> \/\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/\">Topic 2 Bonding and Structure<\/a> \/\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/\">Ionic Bonding<\/a> \/\n        <span>Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds<\/span>\n      <\/nav>\n\n      <header class=\"ols-title-card\">\n        <h1>Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds<\/h1>\n        <p class=\"ols-page-intro\">A concise revision guide to high melting temperatures, brittleness, electrical conductivity, solubility and experimental evidence for ions for Edexcel A Level Chemistry.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-badges\">\n          <div class=\"ols-badge\">Unit: Paper 1<\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-badge\">Topic 2: Bonding and Structure<\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-badge\">9CH0\/01<\/div>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-author\">\n\n    <img decoding=\"async\"\n      class=\"ols-author-avatar-img\"\n      src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/Author-Profile.jpeg\"\n      alt=\"Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah\"\n    >\n\n    <div class=\"ols-author-content\">\n\n      <h2 class=\"ols-author-title\">\n        Written by: Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah\n      <\/h2>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-author-description\">\n        Chemistry specialist revision notes for A Level Chemistry.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <a class=\"ols-linkedin-pill\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/in\/doctormohammedfatah\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">\n        <svg class=\"ols-linkedin-icon\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"currentColor\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n          <path d=\"M4.98 3.5C4.98 4.88 3.86 6 2.48 6S0 4.88 0 3.5 1.12 1 2.48 1s2.5 1.12 2.5 2.5zM.5 8h4V24h-4V8zm7 0h3.8v2.2h.1c.5-.9 1.8-2.2 3.9-2.2 4.2 0 5 2.8 5 6.4V24h-4v-7.6c0-1.8 0-4.2-2.6-4.2s-3 2-3 4v7.8h-4V8z\"\/>\n        <\/svg>\n        View LinkedIn Profile\n      <\/a>\n\n    <\/div>\n\n  <\/div>\n      <\/header>\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card soft\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">1<\/div>\n          <h2>Why Ionic Compounds Have High Melting Temperatures<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <p>Ionic solids contain a <strong>giant ionic lattice<\/strong> of many oppositely charged ions. The ions are held together by <strong>strong electrostatic attractions<\/strong> acting in all directions through the lattice.<\/p>\n        <p>A large amount of energy is needed to overcome these attractions. This is why ionic compounds usually have <strong>high melting temperatures<\/strong>.<\/p>\n        <p>When an ionic solid melts, the ions must gain enough energy to break free from their fixed positions and move past one another.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-key-box\">\n          <p><strong>Key idea:<\/strong> High melting temperature is explained by the strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions in a giant ionic lattice.<\/p>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-figure-card\">\n          <div class=\"ols-figure-image\">\n            <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-zoomable-img ols-lightbox-target\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/Giant-Ionic-Lattice.webp\" alt=\"Giant ionic lattice showing strong ionic bonding in sodium chloride\">\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-figure-caption\">\n            <p>The lattice contains many ions, so many electrostatic attractions must be overcome during melting.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/article>\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">2<\/div>\n          <h2>Why Ionic Compounds Are Brittle<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <p>Ionic crystals are <strong>brittle<\/strong> because their layers can shift when a stress is applied. This movement can bring ions with the <strong>same charge<\/strong> next to each other.<\/p>\n        <p>Like charges repel strongly. This repulsion disrupts the regular lattice and causes the ionic crystal to break apart rather than bend.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-process-strip\">\n          <div class=\"ols-process-step\">\n            <h3>Stress applied<\/h3>\n            <p>A force causes one layer of ions to slide over another layer.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-process-step\">\n            <h3>Same charges align<\/h3>\n            <p>Positive ions may become aligned with positive ions, while negative ions align with negative ions.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-process-step\">\n            <h3>Lattice breaks<\/h3>\n            <p>Strong repulsion separates the layers, causing cracking or brittle fracture.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-figure-card\">\n          <div class=\"ols-figure-image\">\n            <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-zoomable-img ols-lightbox-target\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/brittleness-illustration-scaled.webp\" alt=\"Brittleness in an ionic crystal caused by repulsion between same charge ions\">\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-figure-caption\">\n            <p>Brittleness occurs when layer movement places ions of the same charge next to one another.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/article>\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card purple\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">3<\/div>\n          <h2>Electrical Conductivity<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <p>For a substance to conduct electricity, it must contain <strong>mobile charged particles<\/strong>. Ionic compounds contain charged ions, but whether those ions can move depends on the physical state.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-table-wrap\">\n          <table class=\"ols-table\">\n            <thead>\n              <tr>\n                <th>State<\/th>\n                <th>Do ionic compounds conduct?<\/th>\n                <th>Reason<\/th>\n              <\/tr>\n            <\/thead>\n            <tbody>\n              <tr>\n                <td data-label=\"State\"><strong>Solid<\/strong><\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Do ionic compounds conduct?\">No<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Reason\">The ions are fixed in the lattice and cannot migrate to the electrodes.<\/td>\n              <\/tr>\n              <tr>\n                <td data-label=\"State\"><strong>Molten<\/strong><\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Do ionic compounds conduct?\">Yes<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Reason\">The lattice has broken down, so the ions are free to move.<\/td>\n              <\/tr>\n              <tr>\n                <td data-label=\"State\"><strong>Aqueous<\/strong><\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Do ionic compounds conduct?\">Yes<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Reason\">The ions are separated and mobile in solution.<\/td>\n              <\/tr>\n            <\/tbody>\n          <\/table>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <p>In molten or aqueous ionic compounds, positive ions move towards the negative electrode and negative ions move towards the positive electrode when a potential difference is applied. If direct current is used, <strong>electrolysis<\/strong> can occur as ions are discharged at the electrodes.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-image-stack compact-conductivity\">\n          <div class=\"ols-small-figure\">\n            <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-zoomable-img ols-lightbox-target\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/No-ionic-conduction-in-crystal-solid.webp\" alt=\"Solid ionic crystal showing fixed ions that cannot conduct electricity\">\n            <div class=\"ols-small-caption\">\n              <p>In a solid lattice, ions are charged but not mobile.<\/p>\n            <\/div>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-small-figure\">\n            <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-zoomable-img ols-lightbox-target\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/ionic-conduction.webp\" alt=\"Molten or aqueous ions moving to opposite electrodes and conducting electricity\">\n            <div class=\"ols-small-caption\">\n              <p>When molten or aqueous, ions can migrate through the liquid.<\/p>\n            <\/div>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/article>\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card orange\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">4<\/div>\n          <h2>Solubility in Water<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <p>Water molecules are <strong>polar<\/strong>. The oxygen end of a water molecule is partially negative, while the hydrogen end is partially positive.<\/p>\n        <p>When an ionic compound dissolves, water molecules position themselves between oppositely charged ions in the lattice. The polar water molecules reduce the electrostatic attraction between the ions by surrounding them.<\/p>\n        <p>Hydration shells form around separated ions. Oxygen atoms face positive ions, while hydrogen atoms face negative ions. This keeps the ions dispersed in solution and helps prevent them from recombining.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-key-box\">\n          <p><strong>Exam focus:<\/strong> Link solubility to polar water molecules surrounding the ions and reducing the attraction between oppositely charged ions in the lattice.<\/p>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-image-stack compact-solubility\">\n          <div class=\"ols-small-figure\">\n            <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-zoomable-img ols-lightbox-target\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/Solubility-of-crystal-NaCl-1.webp\" alt=\"Sodium chloride lattice dissolving as water molecules form hydrated sodium and chloride ions\">\n            <div class=\"ols-small-caption\">\n              <p>Water molecules orientate around the separated ions according to charge.<\/p>\n            <\/div>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-small-figure\">\n            <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-zoomable-img ols-lightbox-target\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/Hydration-of-NaCl-ions.webp\" alt=\"Hydrated sodium and chloride ions in water\">\n            <div class=\"ols-small-caption\">\n              <p>Hydration shells keep Na<sup>+<\/sup> and Cl<sup>&#8211;<\/sup> ions dispersed in solution.<\/p>\n            <\/div>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/article>\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">5<\/div>\n          <h2>Evidence for the Existence of Ions<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <p>Two important types of evidence support the existence of ions in ionic compounds: <strong>X-ray diffraction electron density maps<\/strong> and <strong>migration of ions in an electric field<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-rule-list\">\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>X-ray diffraction<\/h3>\n            <p>Electron density maps show a regular, repeating lattice arrangement. For sodium chloride, the maps show larger chloride ions and smaller sodium ions. The electron density falls to zero between neighbouring ions, showing that the ions are discrete and separate.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Ion migration<\/h3>\n            <p>When a direct current is applied to a solution on moist filter paper or in a U-tube, coloured ions move towards electrodes of opposite charge. This visible migration shows that charged particles are moving.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-figure-card\">\n          <div class=\"ols-figure-image\">\n            <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-zoomable-img ols-lightbox-target\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/electron-density-map-NaCl.webp\" alt=\"Electron density map for sodium chloride showing separate sodium and chloride ions\">\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-figure-caption\">\n            <p>The separated contour regions provide evidence for discrete ions in the sodium chloride lattice.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-rule-list\">\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Copper(II) chromate(VI) migration experiment<\/h3>\n            <p>A direct current is passed through aqueous copper(II) chromate(VI). The blue Cu<sup>2+<\/sup>(aq) ions move towards the negative electrode because they are positively charged. The yellow CrO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>2-<\/sup>(aq) ions move towards the positive electrode because they are negatively charged. The colour separation provides visible evidence that ions are charged and mobile in solution.<\/p>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-image-stack compact-copper-migration\">\n              <div class=\"ols-small-figure\">\n                <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-zoomable-img ols-lightbox-target\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/copper-chromate-before-migration.webp\" alt=\"Copper chromate solution before ion migration experiment\">\n                <div class=\"ols-small-caption\">\n                  <p>Before current is applied, the coloured ions have not yet separated clearly.<\/p>\n                <\/div>\n              <\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-small-figure\">\n                <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-zoomable-img ols-lightbox-target\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/copper-chromate-after-migration.webp\" alt=\"Copper chromate solution after ion migration with blue and yellow ions moving to opposite electrodes\">\n                <div class=\"ols-small-caption\">\n                  <p>Cu<sup>2+<\/sup>(aq) ions migrate to the negative electrode, while CrO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>2-<\/sup>(aq) ions migrate to the positive electrode.<\/p>\n                <\/div>\n              <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n          <\/div>\n\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Potassium manganate(VII) migration experiment<\/h3>\n            <p>A drop of purple potassium manganate(VII) solution is placed on moist filter paper connected to a direct current supply. The purple MnO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>&#8211;<\/sup> ions migrate towards the positive electrode. This shows that the manganate(VII) ion is negatively charged and that ions in solution can move under an electric field.<\/p>\n\n            <div class=\"ols-image-stack compact-manganate-migration\">\n              <div class=\"ols-small-figure\">\n                <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-zoomable-img ols-lightbox-target\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/potassium-manganate-before-migration.webp\" alt=\"Potassium manganate(VII) spot before migration on moist filter paper\">\n                <div class=\"ols-small-caption\">\n                  <p>The purple manganate(VII) ion starts near the centre of the moist filter paper.<\/p>\n                <\/div>\n              <\/div>\n              <div class=\"ols-small-figure\">\n                <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-zoomable-img ols-lightbox-target\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/potassium-manganate-after-migration.webp\" alt=\"Potassium manganate(VII) ion migration towards the positive electrode\">\n                <div class=\"ols-small-caption\">\n                  <p>MnO<sub>4<\/sub><sup>&#8211;<\/sup> ions migrate towards the positive electrode, showing that they are negatively charged.<\/p>\n                <\/div>\n              <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/article>\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">6<\/div>\n          <h2>Common Exam Points<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <p>For ionic physical properties questions, the strongest answers connect the property to the <strong>structure<\/strong>, the <strong>forces<\/strong> and the <strong>movement of ions<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-rule-list\">\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Use the phrase giant ionic lattice<\/h3>\n            <p>Do not describe ionic compounds as simple molecules. The high melting temperature comes from many strong electrostatic attractions in a giant lattice.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Conductivity needs mobile charged particles<\/h3>\n            <p>Solid ionic compounds do not conduct because their ions are fixed. Molten and aqueous ionic compounds conduct because ions can move.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Brittleness is not weakness of all bonds<\/h3>\n            <p>Ionic solids are brittle because layer movement brings same charge ions together, producing strong repulsion.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Solubility depends on ion hydration<\/h3>\n            <p>Water molecules surround ions, reduce attractions within the lattice and form hydration shells.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/article>\n\n      <section class=\"ols-h5p-card\">\n        <h2>Check Your Understanding<\/h2>\n        <p>Use these short activities to check high melting temperatures, brittleness, electrical conductivity, solubility and evidence for ions.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-160\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"160\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"T3.1.3.1 Drag: Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n        <div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-161\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"161\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"T3.1.3.2 MCQ: High Melting Temperature\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n        <div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-162\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"162\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"T3.1.3.3 MCQ: Electrical Conductivity\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n        <div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-163\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"163\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"T3.1.3.4 MCQ: Brittleness of Ionic Crystals\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n      <\/section>\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card purple\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">\u2713<\/div>\n          <h2>QuickSnap<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <p>Physical properties of ionic compounds can be explained by the same underlying idea: ionic compounds contain a <strong>giant ionic lattice<\/strong> held together by strong electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged ions.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-rule-list\">\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>High melting temperature<\/h3>\n            <p>Many strong electrostatic attractions must be overcome before ions can move past each other.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Brittleness<\/h3>\n            <p>Layer movement places ions of the same charge next to each other, causing strong repulsion and fracture.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Electrical conductivity<\/h3>\n            <p>Solids do not conduct because ions are fixed. Molten and aqueous ionic compounds conduct because ions are mobile.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Solubility<\/h3>\n            <p>Polar water molecules surround ions, reduce lattice attractions and form hydration shells.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Evidence for ions<\/h3>\n            <p>Electron density maps show discrete ions, and migration experiments show charged particles moving to opposite electrodes.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/article>\n\n      <section class=\"ols-course-cta-ionic-metallic\" id=\"olsCourseCtaIonicMetallic001\">\r\n  <style>\r\n    .ols-course-cta-ionic-metallic,\r\n    .ols-course-cta-ionic-metallic * {\r\n      box-sizing: border-box;\r\n    }\r\n\r\n    .ols-course-cta-ionic-metallic {\r\n      --navy: #1C244B;\r\n      --blue: #2563eb;\r\n      --body-text: #1f2937;\r\n      --grey-text: #667085;\r\n      --border: rgba(28, 36, 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.ols-course-cta-ionic-metallic .ols-animation-play-icon {\r\n        border-top-width: 14px;\r\n        border-bottom-width: 14px;\r\n        border-left-width: 22px;\r\n      }\r\n\r\n      .ols-course-cta-ionic-metallic .ols-animation-pause-button {\r\n        left: 12px;\r\n        bottom: 12px;\r\n        min-width: 84px;\r\n        padding: 9px 14px;\r\n        font-size: 13px;\r\n      }\r\n\r\n      .ols-course-cta-ionic-metallic .ols-course-button {\r\n        width: 100%;\r\n      }\r\n    }\r\n  <\/style>\r\n\r\n  <div class=\"ols-course-cta-card\">\r\n\r\n    <div class=\"ols-course-cta-top\">\r\n\r\n      <a class=\"ols-course-cta-image-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/product\/metallic-bonding-edexcel-a-level-chemistry\/\" aria-label=\"Open the Edexcel A Level Chemistry Topic 2A\/B Ionic and Metallic Bonding course page\">\r\n\r\n        <div class=\"ols-course-cta-image\">\r\n          <img decoding=\"async\"\r\n            src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/T2AB-Course-Card.jpg\"\r\n            alt=\"Edexcel A Level Chemistry Topic 2A\/B Ionic and Metallic Bonding course card\"\r\n          >\r\n        <\/div>\r\n\r\n      <\/a>\r\n\r\n      <div class=\"ols-course-cta-content\">\r\n\r\n        <div class=\"ols-course-cta-header-row\">\r\n\r\n          <div class=\"ols-course-cta-kicker\">\r\n            Complete Topic 2A\/B Ionic & Metallic Bonding Course\r\n          <\/div>\r\n\r\n          <a class=\"ols-course-button ols-course-button-top\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/product\/metallic-bonding-edexcel-a-level-chemistry\/\">\r\n            View Course\r\n          <\/a>\r\n\r\n        <\/div>\r\n\r\n        <h2>\r\n          Master Ionic Bonding and Metallic Bonding for Edexcel A Level Chemistry\r\n        <\/h2>\r\n\r\n      <\/div>\r\n\r\n    <\/div>\r\n\r\n    <div class=\"ols-course-cta-intro-stats\">\r\n\r\n      <p class=\"ols-course-cta-intro\">\r\n        Continue from these free revision notes into the full Topic 2A\/B Ionic and Metallic Bonding course, with guided video teaching, diagnostic MCQ practice, teacher-marked short-answer questions and a specification assignment with a personalised progress report.\r\n      <\/p>\r\n\r\n      <div class=\"ols-course-cta-stats\">\r\n\r\n        <div class=\"ols-course-stat\">\r\n          <span>Guided learning<\/span>\r\n          <strong>11 hours<\/strong>\r\n        <\/div>\r\n\r\n        <div class=\"ols-course-stat\">\r\n          <span>Video lessons<\/span>\r\n          <strong>288 mins<\/strong>\r\n        <\/div>\r\n\r\n        <div class=\"ols-course-stat\">\r\n          <span>MCQ practice<\/span>\r\n          <strong>51 marks<\/strong>\r\n        <\/div>\r\n\r\n        <div class=\"ols-course-stat\">\r\n          <span>SAQ practice<\/span>\r\n          <strong>68 marks<\/strong>\r\n        <\/div>\r\n\r\n      <\/div>\r\n\r\n    <\/div>\r\n\r\n    <div class=\"ols-course-cta-features\">\r\n\r\n      <div class=\"ols-course-feature\">\r\n        <h3>Guided video teaching<\/h3>\r\n        <p>\r\n          Learn ions, ionic lattices, polarisation and metallic bonding through structured video lessons with worked examples and walkthroughs.\r\n        <\/p>\r\n      <\/div>\r\n\r\n      <div class=\"ols-course-feature\">\r\n        <h3>Instant MCQ feedback<\/h3>\r\n        <p>\r\n          Auto-marked MCQ quizzes provide immediate diagnostic feedback for every answer choice.\r\n        <\/p>\r\n      <\/div>\r\n\r\n      <div class=\"ols-course-feature\">\r\n        <h3>Teacher-marked SAQs<\/h3>\r\n        <p>\r\n          Submit written exam responses and receive chemistry specialist feedback with improvement guidance.\r\n        <\/p>\r\n      <\/div>\r\n\r\n      <div class=\"ols-course-feature\">\r\n        <h3>Progress tracking<\/h3>\r\n        <p>\r\n          Identify strengths and weaknesses across ions, ionic bonding, ionic radii, polarisation and metallic bonding with targeted reporting.\r\n        <\/p>\r\n      <\/div>\r\n\r\n    <\/div>\r\n\r\n    <div class=\"ols-course-animation-wrap\">\r\n\r\n      <h3 class=\"ols-course-animation-title\">\r\n        See how the course works\r\n      <\/h3>\r\n\r\n      <div class=\"ols-animation-frame-shell\">\r\n        <iframe\r\n          id=\"olsCourseAnimationFrame001\"\r\n          title=\"OLS course preview animation\"\r\n          loading=\"lazy\"\r\n          referrerpolicy=\"no-referrer\">\r\n        <\/iframe>\r\n\r\n        <button\r\n          class=\"ols-animation-start-overlay\"\r\n          id=\"olsCourseAnimationStart001\"\r\n          type=\"button\"\r\n          aria-label=\"Play OLS course preview animation\">\r\n          <span class=\"ols-animation-start-content\">\r\n            <span class=\"ols-animation-play-circle\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\r\n              <span class=\"ols-animation-play-icon\"><\/span>\r\n            <\/span>\r\n            <span class=\"ols-animation-start-text\">\r\n              Play course preview animation\r\n            <\/span>\r\n          <\/span>\r\n        <\/button>\r\n\r\n        <button\r\n          class=\"ols-animation-pause-button\"\r\n          id=\"olsCourseAnimationPause001\"\r\n          type=\"button\"\r\n          aria-label=\"Pause course preview animation\">\r\n          Pause\r\n        <\/button>\r\n      <\/div>\r\n\r\n      <p class=\"ols-course-video-status\">\r\n        Click play to start the course preview animation.\r\n      <\/p>\r\n\r\n    <\/div>\r\n\r\n    <div class=\"ols-course-cta-bottom\">\r\n\r\n      <a class=\"ols-course-button\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/product\/metallic-bonding-edexcel-a-level-chemistry\/\">\r\n        View Ionic & Metallic Bonding Topic 2A\/B Course\r\n      <\/a>\r\n\r\n    <\/div>\r\n\r\n  <\/div>\r\n\r\n  <template id=\"olsCourseAnimationTemplate001\">\r\n<!DOCTYPE html>\r\n<html lang=\"en\">\r\n<head>\r\n<meta charset=\"UTF-8\">\r\n<meta name=\"viewport\" content=\"width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0\">\r\n<title>OLS Combined Promo Animation<\/title>\r\n\r\n<style>\r\n*{box-sizing:border-box;}\r\n\r\nhtml.ols-animation-paused *,\r\nhtml.ols-animation-paused *::before,\r\nhtml.ols-animation-paused *::after{\r\n  animation-play-state:paused!important;\r\n}\r\n\r\n:root{\r\n  --ols-video-screen-w:1180;\r\n  --ols-video-screen-h:664;\r\n  --ols-video-screen-scale:1;\r\n  --ols-mcq-screen-w:1360;\r\n  --ols-mcq-screen-h:1130;\r\n  --ols-mcq-screen-scale:1;\r\n  --ols-saq-screen-w:1360;\r\n  --ols-saq-screen-h:965;\r\n  --ols-saq-screen-scale:1;\r\n}\r\n\r\nhtml,\r\nbody{\r\n  width:100%;\r\n  height:100%;\r\n}\r\n\r\nbody{\r\n  margin:0;\r\n  overflow:hidden;\r\n  font-family:Poppins,Arial,sans-serif;\r\n  background:#e9efff;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-combined-stage{\r\n  position:relative;\r\n  width:100vw;\r\n  height:100vh;\r\n  overflow:hidden;\r\n  background:\r\n    radial-gradient(circle at top left,rgba(70,127,247,0.14),transparent 34%),\r\n    linear-gradient(135deg,#f8fbff 0%,#e9efff 100%);\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-scene{\r\n  position:absolute;\r\n  inset:0;\r\n  width:100vw;\r\n  height:100vh;\r\n  opacity:0;\r\n  visibility:hidden;\r\n  pointer-events:none;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-scene.active{\r\n  opacity:1;\r\n  visibility:visible;\r\n  pointer-events:auto;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-scene.fade-out{\r\n  animation:olsSceneFadeOut 0.85s ease forwards;\r\n}\r\n\r\n@keyframes olsSceneFadeOut{\r\n  to{\r\n    opacity:0;\r\n    visibility:hidden;\r\n  }\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-title-cursor{\r\n  display:inline-block;\r\n  width:5px;\r\n  height:0.85em;\r\n  background:#1C244B;\r\n  margin-left:8px;\r\n  transform:translateY(8px);\r\n  animation:olsBlink 0.8s infinite;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.cursor{\r\n  display:inline-block;\r\n  width:3px;\r\n  height:28px;\r\n  background:#1c244b;\r\n  margin-left:3px;\r\n  transform:translateY(5px);\r\n  animation:olsBlink 0.8s infinite;\r\n}\r\n\r\n@keyframes olsBlink{\r\n  0%,45%{opacity:1;}\r\n  46%,100%{opacity:0;}\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-stage,\r\n.ols-mcq-stage,\r\n.ols-saq-stage{\r\n  width:100vw;\r\n  height:100vh;\r\n  display:flex;\r\n  justify-content:center;\r\n  align-items:center;\r\n  padding:0;\r\n  overflow:hidden;\r\n  background:\r\n    radial-gradient(circle at top left,rgba(70,127,247,0.14),transparent 34%),\r\n    linear-gradient(135deg,#f8fbff 0%,#e9efff 100%);\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-title-screen,\r\n.ols-mcq-intro-screen,\r\n.ols-saq-intro{\r\n  position:absolute;\r\n  inset:0;\r\n  z-index:50;\r\n  display:flex;\r\n  justify-content:center;\r\n  align-items:center;\r\n  background:\r\n    radial-gradient(circle at top left,rgba(70,127,247,0.14),transparent 34%),\r\n    linear-gradient(135deg,#f8fbff 0%,#e9efff 100%);\r\n  opacity:1;\r\n  visibility:visible;\r\n  pointer-events:none;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-title-screen.hide{animation:olsVideoTitleFadeOut 0.85s ease forwards;}\r\n.ols-mcq-intro-screen.hide{animation:olsMcqIntroFadeOut 0.85s ease forwards;}\r\n.ols-saq-intro.hide{animation:olsSaqIntroFadeOut 0.85s ease forwards;}\r\n\r\n@keyframes olsVideoTitleFadeOut{to{opacity:0;visibility:hidden;}}\r\n@keyframes olsMcqIntroFadeOut{to{opacity:0;visibility:hidden;}}\r\n@keyframes olsSaqIntroFadeOut{to{opacity:0;visibility:hidden;}}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-title-wrap,\r\n.ols-mcq-intro-title-wrap,\r\n.ols-saq-intro-title-wrap{\r\n  max-width:1250px;\r\n  padding:0 34px;\r\n  text-align:center;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-title,\r\n.ols-mcq-intro-title,\r\n.ols-saq-intro-title{\r\n  margin:0;\r\n  font-family:Poppins,Arial,sans-serif;\r\n  font-size:clamp(52px,8vw,124px);\r\n  font-weight:600;\r\n  line-height:1.08;\r\n  color:#1C244B;\r\n  text-shadow:-9px 0 9px rgba(28,36,75,0.16);\r\n  letter-spacing:-0.045em;\r\n}\r\n\r\n#videoTitleText,\r\n#mcqIntroTitleText,\r\n#saqIntroTitleText{\r\n  white-space:pre-wrap;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-scene{\r\n  width:100%;\r\n  height:100%;\r\n  display:flex;\r\n  justify-content:center;\r\n  align-items:center;\r\n  opacity:0;\r\n  visibility:hidden;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-scene.show{\r\n  visibility:visible;\r\n  animation:olsVideoSceneIn 1s ease forwards;\r\n}\r\n\r\n@keyframes olsVideoSceneIn{to{opacity:1;}}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-scale-wrap{\r\n  width:calc(var(--ols-video-screen-w) * 1px);\r\n  height:calc(var(--ols-video-screen-h) * 1px);\r\n  transform:scale(var(--ols-video-screen-scale));\r\n  transform-origin:center center;\r\n  display:flex;\r\n  justify-content:center;\r\n  align-items:center;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-card{\r\n  width:1180px;\r\n  height:664px;\r\n  border-radius:28px;\r\n  overflow:hidden;\r\n  background:#1C244B;\r\n  box-shadow:0 28px 80px rgba(28,36,75,0.28);\r\n  transform:translateY(24px) scale(0.96);\r\n  opacity:0;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-scene.show .ols-video-card{\r\n  animation:olsVideoCardIn 1s cubic-bezier(.18,.89,.32,1.12) forwards;\r\n  animation-delay:0.2s;\r\n}\r\n\r\n@keyframes olsVideoCardIn{\r\n  to{\r\n    transform:translateY(0) scale(1);\r\n    opacity:1;\r\n  }\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-card video{\r\n  display:block;\r\n  width:100%;\r\n  height:100%;\r\n  aspect-ratio:16 \/ 9;\r\n  object-fit:cover;\r\n  border:0;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-mcq-scale-wrap,\r\n.ols-saq-scale-wrap{\r\n  width:calc(var(--ols-mcq-screen-w) * 1px);\r\n  height:calc(var(--ols-mcq-screen-h) * 1px);\r\n  transform:scale(var(--ols-mcq-screen-scale));\r\n  transform-origin:center center;\r\n  display:flex;\r\n  justify-content:center;\r\n  align-items:flex-start;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-saq-scale-wrap{\r\n  width:calc(var(--ols-saq-screen-w) * 1px);\r\n  height:calc(var(--ols-saq-screen-h) * 1px);\r\n  transform:scale(var(--ols-saq-screen-scale));\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-mcq-screen{\r\n  width:1360px;\r\n  height:1130px;\r\n  border-radius:22px;\r\n  overflow:hidden;\r\n  background:#eaf0ff;\r\n  box-shadow:0 26px 70px rgba(28,36,75,0.22);\r\n  opacity:0;\r\n  transform:translateY(24px) scale(0.96);\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-mcq-screen.show{\r\n  animation:olsMcqScreenEnter 1s ease forwards;\r\n}\r\n\r\n@keyframes olsMcqScreenEnter{\r\n  from{opacity:0;transform:translateY(24px) scale(0.96);}\r\n  to{opacity:1;transform:translateY(0) scale(1);}\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-question-area{\r\n  background:#eaf0ff;\r\n  padding:28px 30px 30px;\r\n  position:relative;\r\n  height:610px;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-question-lead{\r\n  margin:0 0 14px;\r\n  font-size:24px;\r\n  line-height:1.35;\r\n  color:#111827;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-ionic-table{\r\n  border-collapse:collapse;\r\n  width:500px;\r\n  margin-bottom:8px;\r\n  font-size:21px;\r\n  color:#111827;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-ionic-table th,\r\n.mcq-ionic-table td{\r\n  border:1.5px solid #c9ced8;\r\n  padding:12px 18px;\r\n  text-align:center;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-ionic-table th{\r\n  background:#f2f2f2;\r\n  font-weight:700;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-ionic-table td{\r\n  background:#eaf0ff;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-question-main{\r\n  margin:6px 0 28px;\r\n  font-size:24px;\r\n  line-height:1.35;\r\n  color:#111827;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-options-wrap{\r\n  display:flex;\r\n  flex-direction:column;\r\n  gap:17px;\r\n  max-width:1200px;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-option-row{\r\n  display:flex;\r\n  align-items:center;\r\n  min-height:34px;\r\n  position:relative;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-radio{\r\n  width:28px;\r\n  height:28px;\r\n  border-radius:50%;\r\n  border:2px solid #6b7280;\r\n  margin-right:16px;\r\n  background:transparent;\r\n  position:relative;\r\n  flex:0 0 auto;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-radio::after{\r\n  content:\"\";\r\n  position:absolute;\r\n  inset:5px;\r\n  border-radius:50%;\r\n  background:#6b7280;\r\n  opacity:0;\r\n  transform:scale(0.4);\r\n  transition:opacity 0.25s ease,transform 0.25s ease;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-option-row.selected .mcq-radio::after{\r\n  opacity:1;\r\n  transform:scale(1);\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-radio-ripple{\r\n  position:absolute;\r\n  left:14px;\r\n  top:50%;\r\n  width:28px;\r\n  height:28px;\r\n  border-radius:50%;\r\n  border:2px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.28);\r\n  transform:translate(-50%,-50%) scale(1);\r\n  opacity:0;\r\n  pointer-events:none;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-option-row.clicking .mcq-radio-ripple{\r\n  animation:mcqRipple 0.75s ease forwards;\r\n}\r\n\r\n@keyframes mcqRipple{\r\n  0%{opacity:0.65;transform:translate(-50%,-50%) scale(1);}\r\n  100%{opacity:0;transform:translate(-50%,-50%) scale(2.5);}\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-option-label{\r\n  font-size:23px;\r\n  color:#111827;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-specific-feedback{\r\n  display:inline-flex;\r\n  align-items:center;\r\n  margin-left:18px;\r\n  min-height:38px;\r\n  opacity:0;\r\n  transform:translateX(-8px);\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-specific-feedback.show{\r\n  opacity:1;\r\n  transform:translateX(0);\r\n  transition:opacity 0.35s ease,transform 0.35s ease;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-cross-icon{\r\n  width:26px;\r\n  height:26px;\r\n  border-radius:50%;\r\n  border:2px solid #d83255;\r\n  color:#d83255;\r\n  display:inline-flex;\r\n  justify-content:center;\r\n  align-items:center;\r\n  font-size:18px;\r\n  font-weight:700;\r\n  margin-right:12px;\r\n  opacity:0;\r\n  transform:scale(0.4);\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-cross-icon.show{\r\n  animation:mcqCrossPop 0.35s ease forwards;\r\n}\r\n\r\n@keyframes mcqCrossPop{\r\n  70%{opacity:1;transform:scale(1.18);}\r\n  100%{opacity:1;transform:scale(1);}\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-specific-feedback-text{\r\n  display:inline-block;\r\n  background:#fff4b8;\r\n  color:#111827;\r\n  padding:8px 16px;\r\n  font-size:22px;\r\n  line-height:1.35;\r\n  min-width:850px;\r\n  min-height:44px;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-submit-button{\r\n  position:absolute;\r\n  right:34px;\r\n  bottom:30px;\r\n  border:0;\r\n  border-radius:999px;\r\n  background:#1C244B;\r\n  color:#ffffff;\r\n  padding:14px 28px;\r\n  font-size:18px;\r\n  font-weight:600;\r\n  box-shadow:0 14px 32px rgba(28,36,75,0.25);\r\n  cursor:default;\r\n  transition:transform 0.2s ease,box-shadow 0.2s ease,background 0.2s ease;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-submit-button.clicked{\r\n  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 <div class=\"ols-mcq-scale-wrap\">\r\n        <main id=\"mcqScreen\" class=\"ols-mcq-screen\">\r\n          <section class=\"mcq-question-area\">\r\n            <p class=\"mcq-question-lead\">Some ionic radii are shown.<\/p>\r\n\r\n            <table class=\"mcq-ionic-table\">\r\n              <thead>\r\n                <tr>\r\n                  <th>Ion<\/th>\r\n                  <th>Ionic radius \/ nm<\/th>\r\n                <\/tr>\r\n              <\/thead>\r\n              <tbody>\r\n                <tr><td>Na<sup>+<\/sup><\/td><td>0.102<\/td><\/tr>\r\n                <tr><td>K<sup>+<\/sup><\/td><td>0.138<\/td><\/tr>\r\n                <tr><td>F<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td><td>0.133<\/td><\/tr>\r\n                <tr><td>Cl<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td><td>0.180<\/td><\/tr>\r\n              <\/tbody>\r\n            <\/table>\r\n\r\n            <p class=\"mcq-question-main\">Which compound has the strongest ionic bonding?<\/p>\r\n\r\n            <div class=\"mcq-options-wrap\">\r\n              <div id=\"mcqWrongOption\" class=\"mcq-option-row\">\r\n                <span class=\"mcq-radio\"><\/span>\r\n                <span class=\"mcq-radio-ripple\"><\/span>\r\n                <span class=\"mcq-option-label\">sodium chloride<\/span>\r\n\r\n                <span id=\"mcqSpecificFeedback\" class=\"mcq-specific-feedback\">\r\n                  <span id=\"mcqCrossIcon\" class=\"mcq-cross-icon\">\u00d7<\/span>\r\n                  <span class=\"mcq-specific-feedback-text\">\r\n                    <span id=\"mcqSpecificText\"><\/span><span id=\"mcqSpecificCursor\" class=\"cursor mcq-specific-cursor\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/span>\r\n                  <\/span>\r\n                <\/span>\r\n              <\/div>\r\n\r\n              <div class=\"mcq-option-row\"><span class=\"mcq-radio\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-radio-ripple\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-option-label\">potassium chloride<\/span><\/div>\r\n              <div class=\"mcq-option-row\"><span class=\"mcq-radio\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-radio-ripple\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-option-label\">sodium fluoride<\/span><\/div>\r\n              <div class=\"mcq-option-row\"><span class=\"mcq-radio\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-radio-ripple\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-option-label\">potassium fluoride<\/span><\/div>\r\n            <\/div>\r\n\r\n            <button id=\"mcqSubmitButton\" class=\"mcq-submit-button\">Submit answer<\/button>\r\n          <\/section>\r\n\r\n          <section id=\"mcqGeneralFeedback\" class=\"mcq-general-feedback\">\r\n            <span id=\"mcqGeneralText\"><\/span><span id=\"mcqGeneralCursor\" class=\"cursor mcq-general-cursor\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/span>\r\n          <\/section>\r\n        <\/main>\r\n      <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n  <\/section>\r\n\r\n  <section id=\"sceneSaq\" class=\"ols-scene\">\r\n    <div class=\"ols-saq-stage\">\r\n      <div id=\"saqIntro\" class=\"ols-saq-intro\">\r\n        <div 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the ions can get closer together.\\n\"+\r\n\"\u2022 Smaller ions \u2192 stronger electrostatic attraction \u2192 stronger ionic lattice.\\n\"+\r\n\"\u2022 Na\u207a (0.102 nm) is smaller than K\u207a (0.138 nm).\\n\"+\r\n\"\u2022 F\u207b (0.133 nm) is smaller than Cl\u207b (0.180 nm).\\n\\n\"+\r\n\"Therefore, the strongest ionic bonding occurs in the compound formed by the smallest cation and the smallest anion \u2192 sodium fluoride (NaF).\\n\\n\"+\r\n\"The correct answer is: sodium fluoride\";\r\n\r\nconst mcqIntroScreen=document.getElementById(\"mcqIntroScreen\");\r\nconst mcqIntroTitleText=document.getElementById(\"mcqIntroTitleText\");\r\nconst mcqIntroTitleCursor=document.getElementById(\"mcqIntroTitleCursor\");\r\nconst mcqScreen=document.getElementById(\"mcqScreen\");\r\nconst mcqWrongOption=document.getElementById(\"mcqWrongOption\");\r\nconst mcqSubmitButton=document.getElementById(\"mcqSubmitButton\");\r\nconst 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because it has more atoms packed together and melts at a higher temperature than sodium.\";\r\nconst saqTeacherFeedbackText=\r\n\"Comment:\\n\"+\r\n\"This answer is not correct. Melting temperature is a result of bonding strength, not the cause of it.\\n\\n\"+\r\n\"In metallic bonding, positive metal ions are attracted to a sea of delocalised electrons. The strength of this attraction depends on the charge of the ions and the number of delocalised electrons.\\n\\n\"+\r\n\"Magnesium forms Mg\u00b2\u207a ions and contributes two delocalised electrons per atom, whereas sodium forms Na\u207a ions and contributes only one electron. This results in a stronger electrostatic attraction in magnesium. Additionally, Mg\u00b2\u207a ions have a higher charge density than Na\u207a ions, further strengthening the metallic bonding.\\n\\n\"+\r\n\"Next time, include:\\n\"+\r\n\"\u2022 Ion charge: magnesium forms Mg\u00b2\u207a, sodium forms Na\u207a \u2713\\n\"+\r\n\"\u2022 Delocalised electrons: magnesium provides more electrons to the sea \u2713\\n\"+\r\n\"\u2022 Charge density: smaller, more highly charged ions create stronger attraction \u2713\\n\\n\"+\r\n\"You were close. Focus on explaining bonding in terms of charge and electron density rather than physical properties like melting point.\";\r\n\r\nconst saqIntro=document.getElementById(\"saqIntro\");\r\nconst saqIntroTitleText=document.getElementById(\"saqIntroTitleText\");\r\nconst saqIntroTitleCursor=document.getElementById(\"saqIntroTitleCursor\");\r\nconst saqStudentText=document.getElementById(\"saqStudentText\");\r\nconst saqTeacherText=document.getElementById(\"saqTeacherText\");\r\nconst saqStudentCursor=document.getElementById(\"saqStudentCursor\");\r\nconst saqTeacherCursor=document.getElementById(\"saqTeacherCursor\");\r\nconst saqFeedbackBox=document.getElementById(\"saqTeacherFeedback\");\r\nconst saqScreen=document.getElementById(\"saqScreen\");\r\n\r\nfunction startSaqFeedbackAnimation(){\r\n  fitSaqScreen();\r\n  saqScreen.classList.add(\"show\");\r\n\r\n  setTimeout(function(){\r\n    typeWriter(saqStudentText,saqStudentAnswer,27,function(){\r\n      saqStudentCursor.style.display=\"none\";\r\n\r\n      setTimeout(function(){\r\n        saqFeedbackBox.classList.add(\"show\");\r\n        saqTeacherCursor.style.display=\"inline-block\";\r\n\r\n        typeWriter(saqTeacherText,saqTeacherFeedbackText,10,function(){\r\n          saqTeacherCursor.style.display=\"none\";\r\n        });\r\n      },650);\r\n    });\r\n  },850);\r\n}\r\n\r\nfunction startSaqIntro(){\r\n  fitSaqScreen();\r\n\r\n  setTimeout(function(){\r\n    typeWriter(saqIntroTitleText,saqIntroTitle,44,function(){\r\n      setTimeout(function(){\r\n        saqIntroTitleCursor.style.display=\"none\";\r\n\r\n        setTimeout(function(){\r\n          saqIntro.classList.add(\"hide\");\r\n\r\n          setTimeout(function(){\r\n            startSaqFeedbackAnimation();\r\n          },850);\r\n        },3000);\r\n      },250);\r\n    });\r\n  },700);\r\n}\r\n\r\nstartVideoSection();\r\n<\/script>\r\n<\/body>\r\n<\/html>\r\n  <\/template>\r\n\r\n  <script>\r\n    (function(){\r\n      var startButton = document.getElementById(\"olsCourseAnimationStart001\");\r\n      var pauseButton = document.getElementById(\"olsCourseAnimationPause001\");\r\n      var iframe = document.getElementById(\"olsCourseAnimationFrame001\");\r\n      var template = document.getElementById(\"olsCourseAnimationTemplate001\");\r\n\r\n      if (!startButton || !pauseButton || !iframe || !template) {\r\n        return;\r\n      }\r\n\r\n      startButton.addEventListener(\"click\", function(){\r\n        iframe.setAttribute(\"srcdoc\", template.innerHTML);\r\n        startButton.classList.add(\"is-hidden\");\r\n        pauseButton.classList.add(\"is-visible\");\r\n        pauseButton.textContent = \"Pause\";\r\n        pauseButton.setAttribute(\"aria-label\", \"Pause course preview animation\");\r\n      });\r\n\r\n      pauseButton.addEventListener(\"click\", function(){\r\n        if (!iframe.contentWindow || typeof iframe.contentWindow.olsToggleAnimationPause !== \"function\") {\r\n          return;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        var state = iframe.contentWindow.olsToggleAnimationPause();\r\n\r\n        if (state === \"paused\") {\r\n          pauseButton.textContent = \"Resume\";\r\n          pauseButton.setAttribute(\"aria-label\", \"Resume course preview animation\");\r\n        } else {\r\n          pauseButton.textContent = \"Pause\";\r\n          pauseButton.setAttribute(\"aria-label\", \"Pause course preview animation\");\r\n        }\r\n      });\r\n    })();\r\n  <\/script>\r\n<\/section>\n\n      <section class=\"ols-faq-card\">\n        <h2>Frequently Asked Questions<\/h2>\n        <p>Use these answers to check the most common misconceptions about ionic physical properties.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-faq-list\">\n          <div class=\"ols-faq-item\">\n            <h3>Why do ionic compounds have high melting temperatures?<\/h3>\n            <p>Ionic compounds contain a giant ionic lattice with many strong electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged ions. A large amount of energy is needed to overcome these attractions.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-faq-item\">\n            <h3>Why are ionic compounds brittle?<\/h3>\n            <p>When a layer of ions is shifted, ions with the same charge can become aligned. These like charges repel strongly, causing the lattice to split apart.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-faq-item\">\n            <h3>Why do solid ionic compounds not conduct electricity?<\/h3>\n            <p>The ions are fixed in position in the solid lattice, so there are no mobile charged particles available to carry charge through the structure.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-faq-item\">\n            <h3>Why do molten and aqueous ionic compounds conduct electricity?<\/h3>\n            <p>The ions are free to move. Positive ions migrate towards the negative electrode, while negative ions migrate towards the positive electrode.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-faq-item\">\n            <h3>Why can some ionic compounds dissolve in water?<\/h3>\n            <p>Polar water molecules surround the ions, reduce the electrostatic attraction between ions in the lattice and form hydration shells around the separated ions.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/section>\n\n      <section class=\"ols-related-card\">\n        <h2>Related Topics<\/h2>\n        <p>Continue through Topic 2 Bonding and Structure using these related revision notes.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-related-grid\">\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/nature-of-ionic-bonding\/\">Nature of Ionic Bonding<\/a>\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/polarisation-of-ions\/\">Polarisation of Ions<\/a>\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/metallic-bonding\/metallic-bonding-and-structure\/\">Metallic Bonding &amp; Structure<\/a>\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/metallic-bonding\/physical-properties-of-metals\/\">Physical Properties of Metals<\/a>\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/\">Covalent Bonding &amp; Structure<\/a>\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/\">Shapes of Molecules<\/a>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/section>\n\n      <!-- OLS Author Copyright Footprint \/ Attribution Card -->\n      <section class=\"ols-attribution-card\">\n        <style>\n          .ols-attribution-card {\n            background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff, #f8fbff);\n            border: 1px solid rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.14);\n            border-radius: 28px;\n            box-shadow: 0 18px 45px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.10);\n            padding: 34px;\n            margin-bottom: 24px;\n            overflow: hidden;\n            font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif;\n            box-sizing: border-box;\n          }\n      \n          .ols-attribution-card,\n          .ols-attribution-card * {\n            box-sizing: border-box;\n          }\n      \n          .ols-attribution-card p {\n            margin: 0;\n            font-size: 14px;\n            line-height: 1.65;\n            font-weight: 300;\n            color: #667085;\n          }\n      \n          .ols-attribution-card strong {\n            font-weight: 700;\n            color: #1C244B;\n          }\n      \n          @media (max-width: 760px) {\n            .ols-attribution-card {\n              padding: 24px 18px;\n              border-radius: 22px;\n            }\n          }\n        <\/style>\n      \n        <p><strong>Copyright notice:<\/strong> This OLS revision content, including the explanations, layout, diagrams, tables and embedded learning structure, is authored for Online Learning System by Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah. 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Bonding and Structure \/ Ionic Bonding \/ Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds A concise revision guide to high melting temperatures, brittleness, electrical conductivity, solubility and experimental evidence for ions for Edexcel A Level Chemistry. 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