{"id":4583,"date":"2026-05-30T06:12:37","date_gmt":"2026-05-30T05:12:37","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/dative-covalent-bonding\/"},"modified":"2026-10-25T12:09:30","modified_gmt":"2026-10-25T12:09:30","slug":"dative-covalent-bonding","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/dative-covalent-bonding\/","title":{"rendered":"Dative Covalent Bonding"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<section class=\"ols-revision-page ols-dative-covalent-bonding-9ch0-page\">\n  <style>\n    .ols-revision-page {\n      --navy: #1C244B;\n      --blue: #2563eb;\n      --soft-blue: #eef4ff;\n      --soft-red: #fff7f7;\n      --soft-purple: #f7f0ff;\n      --soft-green: #f0f7f1;\n      --soft-orange: #fff7ed;\n      --grey-text: #667085;\n      --body-text: #1f2937;\n      --border: rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.14);\n      --shadow: 0 18px 45px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.10);\n      --inner-shadow: 0 10px 26px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.08);\n      font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif;\n      color: var(--navy);\n      background: #ffffff;\n    }\n\n    .ols-revision-page * { box-sizing: border-box; }\n    .ols-main { min-width: 0; max-width: 970px; }\n    .ols-breadcrumbs { display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 8px; margin: 10px 0 22px; font-size: 15px; color: var(--grey-text); }\n    .ols-breadcrumbs a, .ols-breadcrumbs span { color: var(--grey-text); text-decoration: none; font-weight: 600; }\n    .ols-breadcrumbs a:hover { color: var(--blue); text-decoration: underline; text-underline-offset: 3px; }\n    .ols-title-card, .ols-note-card, .ols-h5p-card, .ols-related-card, .ols-faq-card { background: #ffffff; border: 1px solid var(--border); border-radius: 28px; box-shadow: var(--shadow); padding: 34px; margin-bottom: 24px; overflow: hidden; }\n    .ols-title-card { background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff 0%, #f8fbff 100%); }\n    .ols-title-card h1 { margin: 0 0 18px; font-size: clamp(36px, 5vw, 58px); line-height: 1.08; font-weight: 800; letter-spacing: -0.04em; color: #111827; }\n    .ols-page-intro { font-size: 19px; line-height: 1.7; font-weight: 300; color: var(--body-text); margin: 0 0 22px; }\n    .ols-badges { display: flex; flex-direction: column; align-items: flex-start; gap: 12px; margin-bottom: 22px; }\n    .ols-badge { display: inline-flex; align-items: center; padding: 9px 14px; border-radius: 999px; background: #ffffff; border: 1px solid var(--border); font-size: 15px; font-weight: 600; color: var(--navy); }\n    .ols-author { display: flex; align-items: center; gap: 20px; padding: 28px; border-radius: 28px; background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff 0%, #f8fbff 100%); border: 1px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.12); box-shadow: 0 18px 45px rgba(28,36,75,0.10); margin-top: 22px; }\n    .ols-author-avatar-img { width: 92px; height: 92px; border-radius: 50%; object-fit: cover; object-position: center; flex-shrink: 0; border: 4px solid #ffffff; box-shadow: 0 14px 32px rgba(28,36,75,0.18), 0 0 0 1px rgba(28,36,75,0.10); transition: transform 0.25s ease, box-shadow 0.25s ease; }\n    .ols-author:hover .ols-author-avatar-img { transform: scale(1.04); box-shadow: 0 20px 42px rgba(28,36,75,0.22), 0 0 0 1px rgba(28,36,75,0.10); }\n    .ols-author-content { min-width: 0; }\n    .ols-author-title { margin: 0 0 4px; font-size: clamp(24px,3vw,34px); line-height: 1.15; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); letter-spacing: -0.03em; }\n    .ols-author-description { margin: 0; font-size: 17px; line-height: 1.7; font-weight: 300; color: var(--grey-text); }\n    .ols-linkedin-pill { display: inline-flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center; gap: 10px; margin-top: 16px; padding: 11px 18px; border-radius: 999px; background: linear-gradient(135deg,#0A66C2,#004182); color: #ffffff; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14px; line-height: 1; font-weight: 700; letter-spacing: 0.01em; box-shadow: 0 10px 22px rgba(10,102,194,0.24); position: relative; overflow: hidden; transition: transform 0.22s ease, box-shadow 0.22s ease; }\n    .ols-linkedin-pill::before { content: \"\"; position: absolute; top: 0; left: -120%; width: 100%; height: 100%; background: linear-gradient(120deg, rgba(255,255,255,0) 0%, rgba(255,255,255,0.28) 50%, rgba(255,255,255,0) 100%); transition: left 0.7s ease; }\n    .ols-linkedin-pill:hover { transform: translateY(-3px) scale(1.03); box-shadow: 0 16px 34px rgba(10,102,194,0.34), 0 0 0 6px rgba(10,102,194,0.10); color: #ffffff; }\n    .ols-linkedin-pill:hover::before { left: 120%; }\n    .ols-linkedin-icon { width: 18px; height: 18px; display: block; flex-shrink: 0; }\n\n    .ols-note-card.soft { background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff 0%, var(--soft-red) 100%); }\n    .ols-note-card.purple { background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff 0%, var(--soft-purple) 100%); }\n    .ols-note-card.orange { background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff 0%, var(--soft-orange) 100%); }\n    .ols-note-title { display: flex; align-items: center; gap: 14px; margin-bottom: 20px; }\n    .ols-note-icon { width: 52px; height: 52px; border-radius: 16px; background: var(--navy); color: #ffffff; display: grid; place-items: center; font-size: 24px; font-weight: 800; flex-shrink: 0; }\n    .ols-note-title h2, .ols-h5p-card h2, .ols-related-card h2, .ols-faq-card h2 { margin: 0; font-size: clamp(28px, 3.5vw, 42px); line-height: 1.15; font-weight: 800; color: #111827; letter-spacing: -0.03em; }\n    .ols-h5p-card h2, .ols-related-card h2, .ols-faq-card h2 { margin-bottom: 14px; }\n    .ols-note-card p, .ols-note-card li { font-size: clamp(15px, 1.25vw, 17px); line-height: 1.65; font-weight: 300; color: var(--body-text); }\n    .ols-h5p-card p, .ols-related-card p, .ols-faq-card p { font-size: clamp(15px, 1.3vw, 18px); line-height: 1.65; font-weight: 300; color: var(--body-text); }\n    .ols-note-card strong, .ols-h5p-card strong, .ols-related-card strong, .ols-faq-card strong { font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); }\n    .ols-note-card ul, .ols-note-card ol { margin: 0; padding-left: 22px; }\n\n    .ols-key-box { margin-top: 20px; background: var(--soft-green); border: 1px solid rgba(63, 143, 70, 0.25); border-radius: 20px; padding: 18px 20px; }\n    .ols-key-box p { margin: 0; font-weight: 400; color: var(--navy); }\n    .ols-definition-box { background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff, var(--soft-purple)); border: 2px dashed rgba(122, 62, 157, 0.35); border-radius: 24px; padding: 22px 24px; margin-top: 22px; }\n    .ols-definition-box p { margin: 0; color: var(--navy); font-weight: 400; }\n\n    .ols-rule-list { display: grid; gap: 14px; margin-top: 18px; }\n    .ols-rule-item { background: #ffffff; border: 1px solid var(--border); border-left: 5px solid var(--blue); border-radius: 18px; padding: 18px; box-shadow: var(--inner-shadow); }\n    .ols-rule-item h3 { margin: 0 0 8px; font-size: 20px; line-height: 1.25; color: var(--navy); }\n    .ols-rule-item p { margin: 0; font-size: 15px; line-height: 1.6; }\n\n    .ols-figure-card { margin: 26px auto 4px; border: 1px solid var(--border); border-radius: 26px; overflow: hidden; background: #ffffff; box-shadow: var(--inner-shadow); max-width: 100%; }\n    .ols-figure-card.medium { max-width: 820px; }\n    .ols-figure-card.compact { max-width: 700px; }\n    .ols-figure-image { width: 100%; min-height: 260px; display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center; background: #ffffff; padding: 20px; }\n    .ols-figure-image img { max-width: 100%; height: auto; display: block; }\n    .ols-figure-caption { padding: 18px 24px 22px; background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff, #f8fbff); border-top: 1px solid var(--border); }\n    .ols-figure-caption p { margin: 0; color: #5f6b85; font-size: clamp(15px, 1.3vw, 17px); line-height: 1.6; font-weight: 300; font-style: italic; }\n\n    .ols-zoom-card, .ols-zoom-card * { box-sizing: border-box; }\n    .ols-zoom-card { display: block !important; margin: 26px auto 34px !important; border: 1px solid rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.14) !important; border-radius: 26px !important; background: #ffffff !important; box-shadow: 0 18px 45px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.10) !important; overflow: visible !important; position: relative !important; z-index: 1 !important; isolation: isolate !important; }\n    .ols-zoom-card.medium { max-width: 820px; }\n    .ols-zoom-card.compact { max-width: 700px; }\n    .ols-zoom-card:hover { z-index: 50 !important; }\n    .ols-zoom-card-image { display: flex !important; align-items: center !important; justify-content: center !important; width: 100% !important; min-height: 260px !important; padding: 20px !important; background: #ffffff !important; overflow: visible !important; border-top-left-radius: 26px !important; border-top-right-radius: 26px !important; position: relative !important; z-index: 2 !important; }\n    .ols-zoom-card img.ols-zoomable-img { display: block !important; max-width: 100% !important; height: auto !important; border-radius: 18px !important; cursor: zoom-in !important; pointer-events: auto !important; user-select: none !important; -webkit-user-drag: none !important; transform: translateZ(0) scale(1) !important; transform-origin: center center !important; transition: transform 0.32s ease, box-shadow 0.32s ease, filter 0.32s ease !important; position: relative !important; z-index: 2 !important; }\n    @media (hover: hover) and (pointer: fine) { .ols-zoom-card img.ols-zoomable-img:hover { transform: translateZ(0) scale(1.35) !important; box-shadow: 0 28px 70px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.34) !important; filter: saturate(1.02) contrast(1.01) !important; z-index: 100 !important; } }\n    .ols-zoom-card-caption { padding: 18px 22px 20px !important; background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff, #f8fbff) !important; border-bottom-left-radius: 26px !important; border-bottom-right-radius: 26px !important; position: relative !important; z-index: 1 !important; }\n    .ols-zoom-card-caption p { margin: 0 !important; color: #5f6b85 !important; font-size: 15px !important; line-height: 1.65 !important; font-weight: 300 !important; font-style: italic !important; font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif !important; }\n    .ols-image-lightbox { position: fixed; inset: 0; z-index: 999999; display: none; align-items: center; justify-content: center; padding: 34px; background: rgba(10, 15, 35, 0.86); backdrop-filter: blur(8px); -webkit-backdrop-filter: blur(8px); }\n    .ols-image-lightbox.is-open { display: flex; }\n    .ols-image-lightbox-inner { position: relative; width: min(96vw, 1500px); max-height: 92vh; display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center; }\n    .ols-image-lightbox-img { display: block; max-width: 100%; max-height: 92vh; height: auto; width: auto; border-radius: 22px; background: #ffffff; box-shadow: 0 32px 90px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.45); object-fit: contain; }\n    .ols-image-lightbox-close { position: absolute; top: -18px; right: -18px; width: 46px; height: 46px; border: 0; border-radius: 50%; background: #ffffff; color: var(--navy); font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 28px; line-height: 1; font-weight: 700; cursor: pointer; box-shadow: 0 16px 34px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.28); display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center; transition: transform 0.2s ease, background 0.2s ease, color 0.2s ease; }\n    .ols-image-lightbox-close:hover { transform: scale(1.08); background: var(--blue); color: #ffffff; }\n    @media (max-width: 760px) { .ols-zoom-card { border-radius: 22px !important; overflow: hidden !important; } .ols-zoom-card-image { min-height: auto !important; padding: 12px !important; overflow: hidden !important; border-top-left-radius: 22px !important; border-top-right-radius: 22px !important; } .ols-zoom-card img.ols-zoomable-img, .ols-zoom-card img.ols-zoomable-img:hover { transform: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; } .ols-zoom-card-caption { border-bottom-left-radius: 22px !important; border-bottom-right-radius: 22px !important; } .ols-image-lightbox { padding: 16px; } .ols-image-lightbox-inner { width: 100%; max-height: 88vh; } .ols-image-lightbox-img { max-height: 88vh; border-radius: 16px; } .ols-image-lightbox-close { top: 10px; right: 10px; width: 42px; height: 42px; font-size: 26px; } }\n\n    .ols-table-wrap { overflow: hidden; border-radius: 22px; border: 1px solid var(--border); background: #ffffff; margin-top: 18px; }\n    .ols-table { width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse; table-layout: fixed; }\n    .ols-table th { background: var(--navy); color: #ffffff; padding: 16px; text-align: left; font-size: clamp(14px, 1.2vw, 17px); font-weight: 600; overflow-wrap: anywhere; }\n    .ols-table td { padding: 16px; border-bottom: 1px solid var(--border); font-size: clamp(14px, 1.15vw, 16px); line-height: 1.45; color: var(--body-text); vertical-align: top; overflow-wrap: anywhere; }\n    .ols-table tr:last-child td { border-bottom: none; }\n\n    .ols-h5p-card { background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff 0%, #f7f0ff 100%); }\n    .ols-h5p-frame { margin-top: 22px; padding: 18px; border-radius: 24px; background: #ffffff; border: 1px solid var(--border); box-shadow: inset 0 0 0 1px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.03); }\n\n    .ols-faq-list { display: grid; gap: 14px; margin-top: 18px; }\n    .ols-faq-item { background: #ffffff; border: 1px solid var(--border); border-radius: 18px; padding: 18px 20px; box-shadow: var(--inner-shadow); }\n    .ols-faq-item h3 { margin: 0 0 8px; font-size: 20px; line-height: 1.3; color: var(--navy); }\n    .ols-faq-item p { margin: 0; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.65; color: var(--body-text); }\n\n    .ols-related-grid { display: grid; grid-template-columns: repeat(3, minmax(0, 1fr)); gap: 16px; margin-top: 18px; }\n    .ols-related-item { border: 1px solid var(--border); border-radius: 18px; padding: 18px; background: #ffffff; color: var(--navy); text-decoration: none; font-weight: 600; line-height: 1.5; transition: transform 0.2s ease, box-shadow 0.2s ease; }\n    .ols-related-item:hover { transform: translateY(-2px); box-shadow: 0 10px 22px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.08); }\n\n    .ols-course-cta-covalent {\n      width: 100%;\n      margin: 30px 0 24px;\n      font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif;\n    }\n    .ols-course-cta-covalent,\n    .ols-course-cta-covalent * { box-sizing: border-box; }\n    .ols-course-cta-card {\n      overflow: hidden;\n      border-radius: 30px;\n      border: 1px solid var(--border);\n      background: radial-gradient(circle at top left, rgba(37, 99, 235, 0.16), transparent 34%), linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff 0%, #f8fbff 100%);\n      box-shadow: var(--shadow);\n      padding: 30px;\n    }\n    .ols-course-cta-top {\n      display: grid;\n      grid-template-columns: minmax(260px, 0.9fr) minmax(0, 1.1fr);\n      gap: 28px;\n      align-items: center;\n      margin-bottom: 24px;\n    }\n    .ols-course-cta-image-link { display: block; text-decoration: none; border-radius: 24px; }\n    .ols-course-cta-image {\n      width: 100%;\n      border-radius: 24px;\n      overflow: hidden;\n      border: 1px solid var(--border);\n      background: #ffffff;\n      box-shadow: var(--inner-shadow);\n      transition: transform 0.35s ease, box-shadow 0.35s ease;\n    }\n    .ols-course-cta-image img { width: 100%; height: auto; display: block; transition: transform 0.45s ease; }\n    .ols-course-cta-image-link:hover .ols-course-cta-image { transform: translateY(-8px) scale(1.015); box-shadow: 0 26px 60px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.18), 0 0 0 1px rgba(37, 99, 235, 0.12); }\n    .ols-course-cta-image-link:hover .ols-course-cta-image img { transform: scale(1.03); }\n    .ols-course-cta-header-row { display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; align-items: center; justify-content: space-between; gap: 14px; margin-bottom: 18px; }\n    .ols-course-cta-kicker { display: inline-flex; align-items: center; padding: 8px 14px; border-radius: 999px; background: #ffffff; border: 1px solid rgba(37, 99, 235, 0.18); color: var(--blue); font-size: 14px; line-height: 1.2; font-weight: 700; box-shadow: var(--inner-shadow); }\n    .ols-course-cta-covalent h2 { margin: 0 0 14px; font-size: clamp(28px, 3.5vw, 42px); line-height: 1.15; font-weight: 800; letter-spacing: -0.03em; color: #111827; }\n    .ols-course-cta-intro { margin: 0 0 24px; color: var(--body-text); font-size: clamp(16px, 1.4vw, 18px); line-height: 1.7; font-weight: 300; }\n    .ols-course-cta-features { display: grid; grid-template-columns: repeat(2, minmax(0, 1fr)); gap: 14px; margin: 0 0 30px; }\n    .ols-course-feature { background: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.78); border: 1px solid var(--border); border-radius: 18px; padding: 16px 18px; }\n    .ols-course-feature h3 { margin: 0 0 6px; color: var(--navy); font-size: 18px; line-height: 1.3; font-weight: 800; }\n    .ols-course-feature p { margin: 0; color: var(--body-text); font-size: 15px; line-height: 1.6; font-weight: 300; }\n    .ols-course-cta-bottom { display: flex; justify-content: center; padding-top: 22px; border-top: 1px solid var(--border); }\n    .ols-course-button { display: inline-flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center; padding: 15px 28px; border-radius: 999px; background: var(--navy); color: #ffffff; text-decoration: none; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.2; font-weight: 800; box-shadow: 0 12px 26px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.18); transition: transform 0.2s ease, background 0.2s ease, box-shadow 0.2s ease; }\n    .ols-course-button:hover { transform: translateY(-2px); background: var(--blue); color: #ffffff; box-shadow: 0 16px 32px rgba(37, 99, 235, 0.24); }\n    .ols-course-button-top { flex-shrink: 0; padding: 12px 22px; font-size: 15px; }\n\n    .ols-attribution-card {\n      background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff, #f8fbff);\n      border: 1px solid rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.14);\n      border-radius: 28px;\n      box-shadow: 0 18px 45px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.10);\n      padding: 34px;\n      margin-bottom: 24px;\n      overflow: hidden;\n      font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif;\n      box-sizing: border-box;\n    }\n    .ols-attribution-card,\n    .ols-attribution-card * { box-sizing: border-box; }\n    .ols-attribution-card p { margin: 0; font-size: 14px; line-height: 1.65; font-weight: 300; color: #667085; }\n    .ols-attribution-card strong { font-weight: 700; color: #1C244B; }\n\n    @media (max-width: 1050px) {\n      .ols-main { max-width: none; }\n      .ols-related-grid { grid-template-columns: repeat(2, minmax(0, 1fr)); }\n      .ols-course-cta-top { grid-template-columns: 1fr; }\n      .ols-course-cta-image-link { max-width: 520px; margin: 0 auto; }\n    }\n\n    @media (max-width: 760px) {\n      .ols-title-card, .ols-note-card, .ols-h5p-card, .ols-related-card, .ols-faq-card, .ols-attribution-card { padding: 24px 18px; border-radius: 22px; }\n      .ols-note-title { align-items: flex-start; }\n      .ols-figure-card { border-radius: 22px; }\n      .ols-figure-image { min-height: 210px; padding: 14px; }\n      .ols-figure-caption { padding: 16px; }\n      .ols-table-wrap { border: none; background: transparent; }\n      .ols-table, .ols-table thead, .ols-table tbody, .ols-table th, .ols-table td, .ols-table tr { display: block; width: 100%; }\n      .ols-table { border-collapse: separate; border-spacing: 0; }\n      .ols-table thead { display: none; }\n      .ols-table tr { margin-bottom: 14px; border: 1px solid var(--border); border-radius: 18px; overflow: hidden; background: #ffffff; box-shadow: var(--inner-shadow); }\n      .ols-table td { border-bottom: 1px solid var(--border); padding: 14px 16px; overflow-wrap: anywhere; }\n      .ols-table td:last-child { border-bottom: none; }\n      .ols-table td::before { content: attr(data-label); display: block; margin-bottom: 6px; font-size: 13px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--blue); }\n      .ols-author { align-items: flex-start; padding: 22px 18px; border-radius: 22px; }\n      .ols-author-avatar-img { width: 72px; height: 72px; }\n      .ols-author-title { font-size: 24px; }\n      .ols-author-description { font-size: 15px; }\n      .ols-course-cta-card { padding: 20px; border-radius: 24px; }\n      .ols-course-cta-header-row { align-items: stretch; }\n      .ols-course-button-top, .ols-course-button { width: 100%; }\n    }\n  \n    .ols-figure-placeholder .ols-placeholder-box { border: 2px dashed #c9973a; background: #fffaf0; border-radius: 16px; padding: 26px 22px; font-weight: 700; color: #7a4b12; text-align: center; line-height: 1.6; }\n    .ols-figure-placeholder .ols-figure-image { background: transparent; }\n    .ols-figure-placeholder { background: #ffffff; border: 1px solid rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.12); border-radius: 22px; padding: 14px; margin: 18px 0 6px; }\n    .ols-figure-placeholder .ols-figure-caption p { margin: 10px 0 0; font-size: 14px; color: #667085; text-align: center; }\n<\/style>\n\n  <aside class=\"ols-sidebar\">\r\n  <div class=\"ols-sidebar-header\">\r\n    <h3>Revision Notes<\/h3>\r\n    <p>A Level Chemistry<\/p>\r\n  <\/div>\r\n\r\n  <div class=\"ols-topic-group\">\r\n    <h4>Topic 2 Bonding and Structure<\/h4>\r\n\r\n    <ul class=\"ols-topic-list\">\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/\">Ionic Bonding<\/a>\r\n\r\n        <ul class=\"ols-subtopic-list\">\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/nature-of-ionic-bonding\/\">Nature of Ionic Bonding<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/polarisation-of-ions\/\">Polarisation of Ions<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/physical-properties-of-ionic-compounds\/\">Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n        <\/ul>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/\">Covalent Bonding<\/a>\r\n\r\n        <ul class=\"ols-subtopic-list\">\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/nature-of-covalent-bonding\/\">Nature of Covalent Bonding<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/dative-covalent-bonding\/\">Dative Covalent Bonding<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\n          <li>\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/giant-covalent-structures\/\">Giant Covalent Structures<\/a>\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/electronegativity\/\">Electronegativity<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n        <\/ul>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/\">Shapes of Molecules<\/a>\r\n\r\n        <ul class=\"ols-subtopic-list\">\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/linear\/\">Linear<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/trigonal-planar\/\">Trigonal Planar<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/tetrahedral\/\">Tetrahedral<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/trigonal-pyramidal\/\">Trigonal Pyramidal<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/bent\/\">Bent<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/trigonal-bipyramidal\/\">Trigonal Bipyramidal<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/octahedral\/\">Octahedral<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/square-planar\/\">Square Planar<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/square-pyramidal\/\">Square Pyramidal<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/distorted-t\/\">Distorted T<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/seesaw\/\">SeeSaw<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n        <\/ul>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/polar-molecules\/\">Polar Molecules<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/metallic-bonding\/\">Metallic Bonding<\/a>\r\n\r\n        <ul class=\"ols-subtopic-list\">\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/metallic-bonding\/metallic-bonding-and-structure\/\">Metallic Bonding and Structure<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/metallic-bonding\/physical-properties-of-metals\/\">Physical Properties of Metals<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n        <\/ul>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/intermolecular-forces\/\">Intermolecular Forces<\/a>\n        <ul class=\"ols-subtopic-list\">\n          <li>\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/intermolecular-forces\/london-forces\/\">London Forces<\/a>\n          <\/li>\n          <li>\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/intermolecular-forces\/permanent-dipole-dipole-forces\/\">Permanent Dipole-Dipole Forces<\/a>\n          <\/li>\n          <li>\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/intermolecular-forces\/hydrogen-bonding\/\">Hydrogen Bonding<\/a>\n          <\/li>\n          <li>\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/intermolecular-forces\/anomalous-properties-of-water\/\">Anomalous Properties of Water<\/a>\n          <\/li>\n          <li>\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/intermolecular-forces\/boiling-temperature-trends\/\">Boiling Temperature Trends<\/a>\n          <\/li>\n          <li>\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/intermolecular-forces\/choosing-solvents\/\">Choosing Solvents<\/a>\n          <\/li>\n        <\/ul>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/structure-types\/\">Structure Types<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n    <\/ul>\r\n  <\/div>\r\n\r\n  <div class=\"ols-topic-group\">\r\n    <h4>Next Topics<\/h4>\r\n\r\n    <ul class=\"ols-topic-list\">\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-3-redox-i\/\">Redox I<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-4-inorganic-chemistry-and-the-periodic-table\/\">Inorganic Chemistry &amp; The Periodic Table<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-5-formulae-equations-and-amounts-of-substance\/\">Formulae, Equations &amp; Amounts<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n    <\/ul>\r\n  <\/div>\r\n<\/aside>\r\n\r\n<script>\r\n(function() {\r\n  function normalisePath(path) {\r\n    return String(path || '')\r\n      .split('?')[0]\r\n      .split('#')[0]\r\n      .replace(\/\\\/+$\/, '')\r\n      .toLowerCase();\r\n  }\r\n\r\n  function highlightActive() {\r\n    var sidebar = document.querySelector('.ols-sidebar');\r\n    if (!sidebar) return false;\r\n\r\n    var currentPath = normalisePath(window.location.pathname);\r\n    var links = sidebar.querySelectorAll('a[href]');\r\n    var matched = null;\r\n    var matchedLength = 0;\r\n\r\n    sidebar.querySelectorAll('.active, .active-main, .parent-active').forEach(function(item) {\r\n      item.classList.remove('active', 'active-main', 'parent-active');\r\n    });\r\n\r\n    sidebar.querySelectorAll('a[data-ols-disabled-parent=\"1\"], a[aria-current]').forEach(function(a) {\r\n      a.removeAttribute('aria-current');\r\n      a.removeAttribute('tabindex');\r\n      a.removeAttribute('data-ols-disabled-parent');\r\n    });\r\n\r\n    links.forEach(function(a) {\r\n      try {\r\n        var href = a.getAttribute('href');\r\n        if (!href || href === '#' || href.charAt(0) === '#') return;\r\n        var linkPath = normalisePath(new URL(href, window.location.origin).pathname);\r\n        if (!linkPath) return;\r\n        if (currentPath === linkPath || currentPath.indexOf(linkPath + '\/') === 0) {\r\n          if (linkPath.length > matchedLength) {\r\n            matched = a;\r\n            matchedLength = linkPath.length;\r\n          }\r\n        }\r\n      } catch(e) {}\r\n    });\r\n\r\n    if (matched) {\r\n      var matchedLi = matched.closest('li');\r\n      var parentSub = matched.closest('.ols-subtopic-list');\r\n\r\n      if (parentSub) {\r\n        if (matchedLi) {\r\n          matchedLi.classList.add('active');\r\n          matched.setAttribute('aria-current', 'page');\r\n        }\r\n        var parentLi = parentSub.closest('li');\r\n        if (parentLi) {\r\n          parentLi.classList.add('parent-active', 'active-main');\r\n          var parentLink = parentLi.querySelector(':scope > a');\r\n          if (parentLink) {\r\n            parentLink.setAttribute('aria-current', 'true');\r\n            parentLink.setAttribute('tabindex', '-1');\r\n            parentLink.setAttribute('data-ols-disabled-parent', '1');\r\n          }\r\n        }\r\n      } else {\r\n        if (matchedLi) {\r\n          matchedLi.classList.add('parent-active', 'active-main');\r\n          matched.setAttribute('aria-current', 'page');\r\n          matched.setAttribute('tabindex', '-1');\r\n          matched.setAttribute('data-ols-disabled-parent', '1');\r\n        }\r\n      }\r\n    }\r\n\r\n    return true;\r\n  }\r\n\r\n  if (!highlightActive()) {\r\n    document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', highlightActive);\r\n  }\r\n})();\r\n<\/script>\n\n  <main class=\"ols-main\">\n      <nav class=\"ols-breadcrumbs\" aria-label=\"Breadcrumb\">\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/\">Revision Notes<\/a> \/\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/\">A Level Chemistry<\/a> \/\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/\">Edexcel<\/a> \/\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/\">Topic 2 Bonding and Structure<\/a> \/\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/\">Covalent Bonding<\/a> \/\n        <span>Dative Covalent Bonding<\/span>\n      <\/nav>\n\n      <header class=\"ols-title-card\">\n        <h1>Dative Covalent Bonding<\/h1>\n        <p class=\"ols-page-intro\">A concise revision guide to dative covalent bonds, lone pair donation, coordinate bonding, hydronium ions and aluminium chloride dimer formation for Edexcel A Level Chemistry.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-badges\">\n          <div class=\"ols-badge\">Unit: Paper 1<\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-badge\">Topic 2: Bonding and Structure<\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-badge\">9CH0\/01<\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/header>\n<!-- 3D card: dative-bond-al2cl6 (5 Oct 2026, Topics 1-5 upgrade) -->\n<!-- Copyright (c) 2026 Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah, onlinelearningsystem.net. All rights reserved. -->\n<section class=\"ols-dbac-001\" id=\"olsDbac001\">\n<style>\n@import url('https:\/\/fonts.googleapis.com\/css2?family=Poppins:wght@300;400;500;600&display=swap');\n\n.ols-dbac-001{\n  font-family:'Poppins',system-ui,-apple-system,'Segoe UI',Roboto,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;\n  color:#1C244B; background:#ffffff;\n  border:1px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.14);\n  border-radius:28px;\n  box-shadow:0 18px 45px rgba(28,36,75,0.10);\n  padding:44px; margin:26px auto; max-width:980px;\n  box-sizing:border-box; -webkit-font-smoothing:antialiased;\n}\n.ols-dbac-001 *{box-sizing:border-box;}\n\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-head{margin:0 0 22px;}\n.ols-dbac-001 h2.dbac-title{\n  font-size:26px; line-height:1.25; font-weight:600; letter-spacing:-0.012em;\n  margin:0 0 9px; color:#1C244B;\n}\n.ols-dbac-001 p.dbac-sub{\n  font-size:14.5px; line-height:1.62; font-weight:300; color:#4a5270;\n  margin:0; max-width:66ch;\n}\n\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-stage{\n  position:relative; width:100%; height:540px;\n  background:#ffffff; border:1px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.12);\n  border-radius:18px; overflow:hidden;\n}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-canvas{\n  display:block; width:100%; height:100%;\n  touch-action:none; cursor:grab; background:#ffffff;\n}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-canvas.is-drag{cursor:grabbing;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-overlay{position:absolute; inset:0; pointer-events:none; overflow:hidden;}\n\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-lab{\n  position:absolute; left:0; top:0; transform:translate(-50%,-50%);\n  white-space:nowrap; font-size:12.5px; font-weight:500; line-height:1;\n  padding:5px 10px; background:rgba(255,255,255,0.93);\n  border:1px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.16); border-radius:999px;\n  color:#1C244B; will-change:transform;\n}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-lab.l-sm{font-size:11.5px; color:#2f5f9a; border-color:rgba(70,125,190,0.45);}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-lab.l-msg{font-weight:600; border-color:rgba(28,36,75,0.32);}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-lab.l-ok{font-weight:600; border-color:rgba(47,158,87,0.8); color:#1f7a3a;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-lab.l-bad{font-weight:600; border-color:rgba(212,58,50,0.7); color:#b02a24;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-lab.l-e{font-size:11.5px; font-weight:600; border-color:rgba(201,150,28,0.75); color:#8a6410;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-lab.l-hot{font-size:11.5px; font-weight:600; border-color:rgba(214,110,40,0.75); color:#a4501a;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-lab.l-cool{font-size:11.5px; font-weight:600; border-color:rgba(60,120,200,0.7); color:#2a5a98;}\n\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-caption .c-ok{color:#1f7a3a;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-caption .c-bad{color:#b02a24;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-caption{\n  position:absolute; left:14px; top:14px; max-width:60%;\n  font-size:12px; font-weight:500; color:#4a5270; line-height:1.35;\n  background:rgba(255,255,255,0.92); padding:6px 12px;\n  border-radius:14px; border:1px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.12);\n}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-hint{\n  position:absolute; right:14px; top:14px;\n  font-size:11.5px; font-weight:400; color:#8b92a8;\n  background:rgba(255,255,255,0.9); padding:5px 11px;\n  border-radius:999px; border:1px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.10);\n}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-badges{\n  position:absolute; right:14px; bottom:14px; max-width:58%;\n  display:flex; flex-direction:column; align-items:flex-end; gap:6px;\n}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-badge{\n  font-size:12px; font-weight:500; color:#1C244B; line-height:1.35; text-align:right;\n  background:rgba(255,255,255,0.95); padding:5px 12px;\n  border-radius:14px; border:1px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.22);\n}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-badge.b-eq{font-size:13.5px; font-weight:600; border-color:rgba(201,150,28,0.75);}\n\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-controls{margin-top:20px; display:flex; flex-direction:column; gap:12px;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-row{display:flex; align-items:center; gap:10px; flex-wrap:wrap;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-rowlab{font-size:12px; font-weight:500; color:#6b7290; min-width:100px; flex:0 0 auto;}\n\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-seg{\n  display:inline-flex; border:1px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.16);\n  border-radius:12px; overflow:hidden; background:#fbfbfd; flex-wrap:wrap;\n}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-seg button{\n  font-family:inherit; font-size:14px; font-weight:500; color:#3c4463;\n  background:transparent; border:0; border-right:1px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.12);\n  padding:9px 18px; cursor:pointer; transition:background .15s, color .15s;\n}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-seg button:last-child{border-right:0;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-seg button:hover{background:rgba(37,99,235,0.06);}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-seg button[aria-pressed=\"true\"]{background:#2563eb; color:#fff;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-seg button:focus-visible{outline:2px solid #2563eb; outline-offset:-2px;}\n\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-pill{\n  font-family:inherit; font-size:13px; font-weight:500; color:#3c4463;\n  background:#fbfbfd; border:1px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.16);\n  border-radius:999px; padding:8px 16px; cursor:pointer;\n  display:inline-flex; align-items:center; gap:8px;\n  transition:background .15s, border-color .15s, color .15s;\n}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-pill:hover{border-color:rgba(37,99,235,0.4);}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-pill:focus-visible{outline:2px solid #2563eb; outline-offset:2px;}\n\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-info{\n  margin-top:22px; padding:22px 24px;\n  border:1px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.12); border-radius:16px; background:#fbfbfd;\n}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-info h3{margin:0 0 8px; font-size:15.5px; font-weight:600; color:#1C244B;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-info p{margin:0; font-size:14px; line-height:1.68; font-weight:300; color:#41496a; max-width:74ch;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-facts{\n  margin-top:16px; display:flex; gap:26px; flex-wrap:wrap;\n  padding-top:16px; border-top:1px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.10);\n}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-fact{min-width:110px;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-fact span{display:block; font-size:11.5px; color:#7d8399; font-weight:400; margin-bottom:3px;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-fact strong{display:block; font-size:15px; font-weight:600; color:#1C244B;}\n\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-key{\n  margin-top:16px; display:flex; gap:20px; flex-wrap:wrap;\n  font-size:12.5px; font-weight:400; color:#5a6180;\n}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-key i{\n  display:inline-block; width:13px; height:13px; border-radius:3px;\n  margin-right:7px; vertical-align:-2px; border:1px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.18);\n}\n\n@media (max-width:760px){\n  .ols-dbac-001{padding:26px; border-radius:22px;}\n  .ols-dbac-001 h2.dbac-title{font-size:20.5px;}\n  .ols-dbac-001 p.dbac-sub{font-size:13.5px;}\n  .ols-dbac-001 .dbac-stage{height:400px;}\n  .ols-dbac-001 .dbac-rowlab{min-width:100%;}\n  .ols-dbac-001 .dbac-seg button{padding:9px 13px; font-size:13px;}\n  .ols-dbac-001 .dbac-lab{font-size:10.5px; padding:4px 8px;}\n  .ols-dbac-001 .dbac-lab.l-sm,.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-lab.l-e,.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-lab.l-hot,.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-lab.l-cool{font-size:9.5px; padding:3px 7px;}\n  .ols-dbac-001 .dbac-caption{font-size:10.5px; padding:5px 9px; max-width:64%;}\n  .ols-dbac-001 .dbac-badge{font-size:10.5px; padding:4px 9px;}\n  .ols-dbac-001 .dbac-badge.b-eq{font-size:11px;}\n  .ols-dbac-001 .dbac-badges{max-width:calc(100% - 28px);}\n  .ols-dbac-001 .dbac-info{padding:18px;}\n}\n\/* on a phone the caption needs the full top row, so the drag hint goes *\/\n@media (max-width:480px){\n  .ols-dbac-001 .dbac-hint{display:none;}\n  .ols-dbac-001 .dbac-caption{max-width:calc(100% - 28px);}\n}\n@media (prefers-reduced-motion:reduce){\n  .ols-dbac-001 .dbac-seg button,.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-pill{transition:none;}\n}\n\n.ols-cc-dbac-001{\n  font-family:'Poppins',system-ui,-apple-system,'Segoe UI',Roboto,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;\n  margin:10px auto 0; text-align:center; font-size:11px; font-style:italic; color:#aab0c0;\n}\n.ols-cc-dbac-001 a{color:#aab0c0; text-decoration:none;}\n.ols-cc-dbac-001 a:hover{text-decoration:underline;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-seg button{display:inline-flex; align-items:center;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-seg button .dbac-n{display:inline-flex; align-items:center; justify-content:center; width:20px; height:20px; margin-right:9px; border-radius:50%; font-size:11px; font-weight:600; background:rgba(37,99,235,0.10); color:#2563eb; flex:0 0 auto;}\n.ols-dbac-001 .dbac-seg button[aria-pressed=\"true\"] .dbac-n{background:#ffffff; color:#2563eb;}\n<\/style>\n\n<div class=\"dbac-head\">\n  <h2 class=\"dbac-title\">Dative Bonds in NH\u2084\u207a and Al\u2082Cl\u2086<\/h2>\n  <p class=\"dbac-sub\">Choose a step to watch a lone pair become a shared pair: first when ammonia meets H\u207a, then when two AlCl\u2083 molecules join to make Al\u2082Cl\u2086.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"dbac-stage\" id=\"dbacStage\">\n  <canvas class=\"dbac-canvas\" id=\"dbacCanvas\"><\/canvas>\n  <div class=\"dbac-overlay\" id=\"dbacOverlay\"><\/div>\n  <div class=\"dbac-caption\" id=\"dbacCaption\"><\/div>\n  <div class=\"dbac-hint\" id=\"dbacHint\">Drag to rotate<\/div>\n  <div class=\"dbac-badges\" id=\"dbacBadges\"><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"dbac-controls\">\n  <div class=\"dbac-row\">\n    <span class=\"dbac-rowlab\">Step<\/span>\n    <div class=\"dbac-seg\" role=\"group\" aria-label=\"Step\">\n      <button type=\"button\" data-step=\"1\" aria-pressed=\"true\"><span class=\"dbac-n\">1<\/span>The lone pair on N<\/button>\n      <button type=\"button\" data-step=\"2\" aria-pressed=\"false\"><span class=\"dbac-n\">2<\/span>NH\u2083 + H\u207a \u2192 NH\u2084\u207a<\/button>\n      <button type=\"button\" data-step=\"3\" aria-pressed=\"false\"><span class=\"dbac-n\">3<\/span>Two AlCl\u2083 molecules<\/button>\n      <button type=\"button\" data-step=\"4\" aria-pressed=\"false\"><span class=\"dbac-n\">4<\/span>Dative bonds form<\/button>\n      <button type=\"button\" data-step=\"5\" aria-pressed=\"false\"><span class=\"dbac-n\">5<\/span>The Al\u2082Cl\u2086 dimer<\/button>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/div>\n\n  <div class=\"dbac-row\">\n    <span class=\"dbac-rowlab\">View<\/span>\n    <button type=\"button\" class=\"dbac-pill\" id=\"dbacResetV\">Reset view<\/button>\n  <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"dbac-info\">\n  <h3 id=\"dbacInfoTitle\"><\/h3>\n  <p id=\"dbacInfoText\"><\/p>\n  <div class=\"dbac-facts\" id=\"dbacFacts\"><\/div>\n  <div class=\"dbac-key\">\n    <span><i style=\"background:#3056ce\"><\/i>Nitrogen<\/span>\n    <span><i style=\"background:#f4f4f7\"><\/i>Hydrogen<\/span>\n    <span><i style=\"background:#b0b4c0\"><\/i>Aluminium<\/span>\n    <span><i style=\"background:#34aa48\"><\/i>Chlorine<\/span>\n    <span><i style=\"background:#f6c424\"><\/i>Electron (lone pair)<\/span>\n    <span><i style=\"background:#c98a10\"><\/i>Dative bond arrow<\/span>\n  <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<script src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/JS\/dative-bond-al2cl6.js?v=20261025p\"><\/script>\n<\/section>\n\n<p class=\"ols-cc-dbac-001\">&copy; Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah &#8211; <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">onlinelearningsystem.net<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n      \n<section class=\"ols-h5p-card ols-h5p-inline ols-h5p-recap\">\n<span class=\"ols-h5p-kicker\">Before you start<\/span>\n<h2>GCSE Recap: Lone Pairs and the Hydrogen Ion<\/h2>\n<p>Before you start, check the GCSE ideas about lone pairs and the hydrogen ion that this page builds on.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-content\" data-content-id=\"672\"><\/div><\/div>\n<\/section>\n<article class=\"ols-note-card soft\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">1<\/div>\n          <h2>What Is a Dative Covalent Bond?<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <p>A <strong>dative covalent bond<\/strong> forms when the shared electron pair in a covalent bond is <strong>donated entirely by one atom<\/strong>.<\/p>\n        <p>The atom donating the electron pair must have a <strong>lone pair<\/strong>. The other atom accepts the pair but does not contribute any electrons to that bond.<\/p>\n        <p>This is also called a <strong>coordinate bond<\/strong> or <strong>co-ordinate bond<\/strong>. Once the bond has formed, it behaves like a normal covalent bond.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-definition-box\">\n          <p><strong>Definition:<\/strong> A dative covalent bond is a covalent bond in which both electrons in the shared pair are supplied by the same atom.<\/p>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-key-box\">\n          <p><strong>Key idea:<\/strong> The bond is still covalent because a pair of electrons is shared. The special feature is where the shared pair originally came from.<\/p>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/article>\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">2<\/div>\n          <h2>Normal Covalent Bonds Compared With Dative Bonds<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <p>In a normal covalent bond, each bonded atom contributes one electron to the shared pair. In a dative covalent bond, one atom contributes both electrons.<\/p>\n        <p>After formation, the distinction is only about the <strong>origin of the electron pair<\/strong>. The resulting bond is still a covalent bond involving shared electron density between nuclei.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-table-wrap\">\n          <table class=\"ols-table\">\n            <thead>\n              <tr>\n                <th>Feature<\/th>\n                <th>Normal covalent bond<\/th>\n                <th>Dative covalent bond<\/th>\n              <\/tr>\n            <\/thead>\n            <tbody>\n              <tr>\n                <td data-label=\"Feature\"><strong>Electron contribution<\/strong><\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Normal covalent bond\">Each atom contributes one electron.<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Dative covalent bond\">One atom contributes both electrons.<\/td>\n              <\/tr>\n              <tr>\n                <td data-label=\"Feature\"><strong>Bond type after formation<\/strong><\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Normal covalent bond\">A covalent bond with shared electron density.<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Dative covalent bond\">Also a covalent bond with shared electron density.<\/td>\n              <\/tr>\n              <tr>\n                <td data-label=\"Feature\"><strong>Typical requirement<\/strong><\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Normal covalent bond\">Usually requires one unpaired electron from each atom.<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Dative covalent bond\">Requires a lone pair donor and an electron-pair acceptor.<\/td>\n              <\/tr>\n            <\/tbody>\n          <\/table>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-key-box\">\n          <p><strong>Exam focus:<\/strong> Do not describe a dative covalent bond as ionic bonding or electron transfer. It is still a shared-pair covalent bond.<\/p>\n        <\/div>\n      <div class=\"ols-zoom-card\">\n<div class=\"ols-zoom-card-image\">\n<a class=\"ols-lightbox-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/t3-img-08-dativevsnormal.jpg\" aria-label=\"Open image full screen\">\n<img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-zoomable-img ols-lightbox-target\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/t3-img-08-dativevsnormal.jpg\" alt=\"Two panels: a normal covalent bond with one electron from each atom, and a dative bond with both electrons from the donor\">\n<\/a>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-zoom-card-caption\"><p>Both bonds are a shared pair; in a dative bond the donor atom supplies both electrons.<\/p><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/article>\n<section class=\"ols-h5p-card ols-h5p-inline\">\n<span class=\"ols-h5p-kicker\">Check your understanding<\/span>\n<h2>Quick Check: Normal or Dative?<\/h2>\n<p>Choose the change that forms a dative covalent bond.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-169\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"169\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Dative Bonding MCQ: Which Change Forms a Dative Covalent Bond?\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card purple\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">3<\/div>\n          <h2>Hydronium Ion: Lone Pair Donation by Water<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <p>Water can form a dative covalent bond because oxygen has lone pairs of electrons. A hydrogen ion, H<sup>+<\/sup>, has no electrons and can accept a lone pair.<\/p>\n        <p>When water donates one lone pair to H<sup>+<\/sup>, the <strong>hydronium ion<\/strong>, H<sub>3<\/sub>O<sup>+<\/sup>, forms. The new O-H bond is drawn as a dative covalent bond because both bonding electrons came from oxygen.<\/p>\n        <p>Exam papers and textbooks also call H<sub>3<\/sub>O<sup>+<\/sup> the <strong>oxonium<\/strong> ion or the <strong>hydroxonium<\/strong> ion. All three names describe the same ion, so accept whichever one the question uses.<\/p>\n        <p>The charge carries straight over from H<sup>+<\/sup>. The lone pair is <strong>shared<\/strong>, not given away, so no electrons are gained or lost: a neutral water molecule plus a 1+ ion gives an ion with a charge of 1+.<\/p>\n<p>The charge belongs to the whole H<sub>3<\/sub>O<sup>+<\/sup> ion, not to any one atom in it.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-figure-card ols-zoom-card compact\">\n          <div class=\"ols-figure-image ols-zoom-card-image\">\n            <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-zoomable-img ols-lightbox-target\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/t3-cd-06-oxonium.svg\" alt=\"Water donating a lone pair to H\u207a, and H\u2083O\u207a as a dot-and-cross diagram and as a displayed formula with an O\u2192H dative bond\" width=\"1520\" height=\"1018\">\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-figure-caption ols-zoom-card-caption\">\n            <p>Oxygen donates a lone pair to H<sup>+<\/sup>, forming H<sub>3<\/sub>O<sup>+<\/sup> with a dative covalent O-H bond.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-key-box\">\n          <p><strong>Remember:<\/strong> H<sup>+<\/sup> accepts an electron pair because it has no electron of its own to contribute to the bond.<\/p>\n        <\/div>\n      <div class=\"ols-zoom-card\">\n<div class=\"ols-zoom-card-image\">\n<a class=\"ols-lightbox-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/t3-cd-07-ammonium.svg\" aria-label=\"Open image full screen\">\n<img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-zoomable-img ols-lightbox-target\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/t3-cd-07-ammonium.svg\" alt=\"Ammonia donating its lone pair to H\u207a, and NH\u2084\u207a as a displayed formula with one N\u2192H dative bond and as a dot-and-cross diagram\">\n<\/a>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-zoom-card-caption\"><p>Ammonia donates its lone pair to H\u207a in the same way, forming NH\u2084\u207a; once formed, all four N\u2013H bonds are identical.<\/p><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/article>\n<section class=\"ols-h5p-card ols-h5p-inline\">\n<span class=\"ols-h5p-kicker\">Check your understanding<\/span>\n<h2>Quick Check: The Ammonium Ion<\/h2>\n<p>Drag the words into place to describe how the ammonium ion forms.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-168\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"168\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Dative Bonding Drag: How the Ammonium Ion Forms\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card orange\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">4<\/div>\n          <h2>Aluminium Chloride and Dimer Formation<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <p>Aluminium chloride, AlCl<sub>3<\/sub>, is a covalent compound in which the central aluminium atom has only <strong>six electrons<\/strong> in its outer shell.<\/p>\n        <p>Because aluminium does not have a full outer shell in AlCl<sub>3<\/sub>, it can accept a lone pair from a chlorine atom in another AlCl<sub>3<\/sub> molecule.<\/p>\n        <p>The dimer forms in the <strong>vapour<\/strong>. Aluminium chloride sublimes on heating, and just above the sublimation temperature two AlCl<sub>3<\/sub> molecules combine to form Al<sub>2<\/sub>Cl<sub>6<\/sub>.<\/p>\n<p>The same dimer is present when aluminium chloride is dissolved in a non-polar solvent. In the dimer, one chlorine atom from each AlCl<sub>3<\/sub> molecule donates a lone pair to the aluminium atom in the other molecule.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-figure-card\">\n<div class=\"ols-figure-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/t3-cd-08-al2cl6.svg\" alt=\"Two AlCl\u2083 molecules combining into Al\u2082Cl\u2086, with two Cl\u2192Al dative bonds from the bridging chlorine atoms\" width=\"1520\" height=\"1056\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-figure-caption\"><p>Al\u2082Cl\u2086 contains two dative covalent bonds, allowing each aluminium atom to reach a full outer shell.<\/p><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-key-box\">\n          <p><strong>Exam focus:<\/strong> In Al<sub>2<\/sub>Cl<sub>6<\/sub>, the chlorine atoms act as lone pair donors and the aluminium atoms act as electron-pair acceptors.<\/p>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/article>\n<section class=\"ols-h5p-card ols-h5p-inline\">\n<span class=\"ols-h5p-kicker\">Check your understanding<\/span>\n<h2>Quick Check: Explain a New Dative Bond<\/h2>\n<p>Write a short explanation, then compare it with the mark points and the model answer.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-171\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"171\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Dative Bonding Explain: Ammonia and Boron Trifluoride\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">5<\/div>\n          <h2>How Dative Bonds Are Represented<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <p>Dative covalent bonds are often shown using an <strong>arrow<\/strong>. The arrow starts at the atom donating the lone pair and points towards the atom accepting the electron pair.<\/p>\n        <p>For example, in H<sub>3<\/sub>O<sup>+<\/sup>, the arrow would point from oxygen towards H<sup>+<\/sup>. In Al<sub>2<\/sub>Cl<sub>6<\/sub>, the arrows point from chlorine atoms towards aluminium atoms.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-rule-list\">\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Arrow tail<\/h3>\n            <p>The tail begins at the atom donating the lone pair.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Arrow head<\/h3>\n            <p>The arrow points towards the atom accepting the electron pair.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>After formation<\/h3>\n            <p>The bond behaves like an ordinary covalent bond even though both electrons originally came from one atom.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <div class=\"ols-zoom-card\">\n<div class=\"ols-zoom-card-image\">\n<a class=\"ols-lightbox-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/t3-img-09-donoracceptor.jpg\" aria-label=\"Open image full screen\">\n<img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-zoomable-img ols-lightbox-target\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/10\/t3-img-09-donoracceptor.jpg\" alt=\"Checklist of lone-pair donors and electron-pair acceptors, with four worked dative-bond examples and the arrow convention\">\n<\/a>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-zoom-card-caption\"><p>A dative bond needs a lone-pair donor and an acceptor with an empty orbital; the arrow points from donor to acceptor.<\/p><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/article>\n<section class=\"ols-h5p-card ols-h5p-inline\">\n<span class=\"ols-h5p-kicker\">Check your understanding<\/span>\n<h2>Quick Check: Which Way Does the Arrow Point?<\/h2>\n<p>Answer each quick question on the direction of the dative bond arrow.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-673\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"673\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Dative Bonding Quick Fire: Which Way Does the Arrow Point?\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"ols-h5p-card ols-h5p-inline\">\n<span class=\"ols-h5p-kicker\">Check your understanding<\/span>\n<h2>Quick Check: Spot the Accurate Statement<\/h2>\n<p>In each round, choose the one accurate statement to review the whole page.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-170\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"170\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Dative Bonding Summary: Spot the Accurate Statement\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">6<\/div>\n          <h2>Common Exam Points<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <p>Strong answers identify the electron-pair donor, the electron-pair acceptor and the origin of the shared pair.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-rule-list\">\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Use the phrase lone pair<\/h3>\n            <p>The donor must provide a lone pair of electrons to form the dative bond.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>State that both electrons come from one atom<\/h3>\n            <p>This is the key difference between a dative covalent bond and a normal covalent bond.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Do not change the bond type after formation<\/h3>\n            <p>Once formed, the dative bond behaves like a regular covalent bond.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Use correct examples<\/h3>\n            <p>H<sub>3<\/sub>O<sup>+<\/sup> forms when water donates a lone pair to H<sup>+<\/sup>. Al<sub>2<\/sub>Cl<sub>6<\/sub> forms when chlorine atoms donate lone pairs to electron-deficient aluminium atoms.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/article>\n\n      \n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card purple\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">\u2713<\/div>\n          <h2>QuickSnap<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <p>A dative covalent bond is a covalent bond where <strong>both electrons in the shared pair are donated by the same atom<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-rule-list\">\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Dative covalent bond<\/h3>\n            <p>A shared electron pair supplied entirely by one atom.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Donor<\/h3>\n            <p>The atom or ion that supplies the lone pair.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Acceptor<\/h3>\n            <p>The atom or ion that accepts the lone pair.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Hydronium ion<\/h3>\n            <p>Water donates a lone pair from oxygen to H<sup>+<\/sup>, forming H<sub>3<\/sub>O<sup>+<\/sup>.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Aluminium chloride dimer<\/h3>\n            <p>Two AlCl<sub>3<\/sub> molecules combine to form Al<sub>2<\/sub>Cl<sub>6<\/sub> using two dative covalent bonds.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/article>\n\n      <section class=\"ols-faq-card\">\n        <h2>FAQs<\/h2>\n        <p>Common questions students ask about dative covalent bonding.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-faq-list\">\n          <div class=\"ols-faq-item\">\n            <h3>What is a dative covalent bond?<\/h3>\n            <p>A dative covalent bond is a covalent bond in which both electrons in the shared pair are donated by the same atom.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n\n          <div class=\"ols-faq-item\">\n            <h3>Is a dative covalent bond different from a normal covalent bond after it forms?<\/h3>\n            <p>No. Once a dative covalent bond has formed, it behaves like a normal covalent bond. The difference is that both bonding electrons originally came from one atom.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n\n          <div class=\"ols-faq-item\">\n            <h3>Why can water form a dative covalent bond with H<sup>+<\/sup>?<\/h3>\n            <p>Water has lone pairs on oxygen, while H<sup>+<\/sup> can accept an electron pair. Oxygen donates a lone pair to H<sup>+<\/sup>, forming H<sub>3<\/sub>O<sup>+<\/sup>.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n\n          <div class=\"ols-faq-item\">\n            <h3>Why does AlCl<sub>3<\/sub> form Al<sub>2<\/sub>Cl<sub>6<\/sub>?<\/h3>\n            <p>In AlCl<sub>3<\/sub>, aluminium has only six electrons in its outer shell. Chlorine atoms can donate lone pairs to aluminium atoms in another AlCl<sub>3<\/sub> molecule, forming Al<sub>2<\/sub>Cl<sub>6<\/sub>.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n\n          <div class=\"ols-faq-item\">\n            <h3>Which way does the arrow point in a dative covalent bond?<\/h3>\n            <p>The arrow starts at the lone pair donor and points towards the electron-pair acceptor.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/section>\n\n      <!-- author card (moved to the end, 10 Oct 2026) -->\n      <div class=\"ols-author\">\n\n    <img decoding=\"async\"\n      class=\"ols-author-avatar-img\"\n      src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/Author-Profile.jpeg\"\n      alt=\"Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah\"\n    >\n\n    <div class=\"ols-author-content\">\n\n      <h2 class=\"ols-author-title\">Written by:<br><span>Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah<\/span><\/h2>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-author-description\">\n        Chemistry specialist revision notes for A Level Chemistry.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <a\n        class=\"ols-linkedin-pill\"\n        href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/in\/doctormohammedfatah\/\"\n        target=\"_blank\"\n        rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"\n      >\n        <svg class=\"ols-linkedin-icon\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"currentColor\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n          <path d=\"M4.98 3.5C4.98 4.88 3.86 6 2.48 6S0 4.88 0 3.5 1.12 1 2.48 1s2.5 1.12 2.5 2.5zM.5 8h4V24h-4V8zm7 0h3.8v2.2h.1c.5-.9 1.8-2.2 3.9-2.2 4.2 0 5 2.8 5 6.4V24h-4v-7.6c0-1.8 0-4.2-2.6-4.2s-3 2-3 4v7.8h-4V8z\"\/>\n        <\/svg>\n        View LinkedIn Profile\n      <\/a>\n\n    <\/div>\n\n  <\/div>\n\n\n      <section class=\"ols-related-card\">\n        <h2>Related Topics<\/h2>\n        <p>Continue through Topic 2 Bonding and Structure with the next linked revision notes.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-related-grid\">\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/nature-of-covalent-bonding\/\">Nature of Covalent Bonding<\/a>\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/electronegativity\/\">Electronegativity<\/a>\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/\">Shapes of Molecules<\/a>\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/polar-molecules\/\">Non-Polar &amp; Polar Molecules<\/a>\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/ionic-bonding\/\">Ionic Bonding<\/a>\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/metallic-bonding\/\">Metallic Bonding<\/a>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/section>\n\n      <section class=\"ols-attribution-card ols-attr-std\" aria-label=\"Copyright notice\">\n<style id=\"ols-attribution-card-css\">.ols-attribution-card.ols-attr-std{background:linear-gradient(135deg,#ffffff,#f8fbff);border:1px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.14);border-radius:28px;box-shadow:0 18px 45px rgba(28,36,75,0.10);padding:34px;margin:24px 0;overflow:hidden;font-family:Poppins,Arial,sans-serif;box-sizing:border-box}.ols-attribution-card.ols-attr-std *{box-sizing:border-box}.ols-attribution-card.ols-attr-std p{margin:0;font-size:14px;line-height:1.65;font-weight:300;color:#667085}.ols-attribution-card.ols-attr-std strong{font-weight:700;color:#1C244B}@media (max-width:760px){.ols-attribution-card.ols-attr-std{padding:24px 18px;border-radius:22px}}<\/style>\n<p><strong>Copyright notice:<\/strong> This OLS revision content, including the explanations, layout, diagrams, tables and embedded learning structure, is authored for Online Learning System by Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah. It may not be copied, reproduced, redistributed or adapted without written permission.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-image-lightbox\" id=\"olsImageLightboxDativeCovalentBonding9ch0\" aria-hidden=\"true\" role=\"dialog\" aria-modal=\"true\" aria-label=\"Expanded revision image\">\n        <div class=\"ols-image-lightbox-inner\">\n          <button class=\"ols-image-lightbox-close\" type=\"button\" aria-label=\"Close enlarged image\">\u00d7<\/button>\n          <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-image-lightbox-img\" src=\"\" alt=\"\">\n        <\/div>\n      <\/div>\n\n      <script>\n        (function(){\n          var page = document.querySelector(\".ols-dative-covalent-bonding-9ch0-page\");\n          if (!page) { return; }\n          var lightbox = page.querySelector(\"#olsImageLightboxDativeCovalentBonding9ch0\");\n          if (!lightbox) { return; }\n          var lightboxImage = lightbox.querySelector(\".ols-image-lightbox-img\");\n          var closeButton = lightbox.querySelector(\".ols-image-lightbox-close\");\n          var clickableImages = page.querySelectorAll(\"img.ols-lightbox-target\");\n          function openLightbox(image) {\n            lightboxImage.src = image.currentSrc || image.src;\n            lightboxImage.alt = image.alt || \"Expanded revision image\";\n            lightbox.classList.add(\"is-open\");\n            lightbox.setAttribute(\"aria-hidden\", \"false\");\n            if (!document.body.dataset.olsPreviousOverflow) {\n              document.body.dataset.olsPreviousOverflow = document.body.style.overflow || \"default\";\n            }\n            document.body.style.overflow = \"hidden\";\n          }\n          function closeLightbox() {\n            lightbox.classList.remove(\"is-open\");\n            lightbox.setAttribute(\"aria-hidden\", \"true\");\n            lightboxImage.src = \"\";\n            if (document.body.dataset.olsPreviousOverflow) {\n              document.body.style.overflow = document.body.dataset.olsPreviousOverflow === \"default\" ? \"\" : document.body.dataset.olsPreviousOverflow;\n              delete document.body.dataset.olsPreviousOverflow;\n            }\n          }\n          clickableImages.forEach(function(image){\n            image.addEventListener(\"click\", function(event){\n              event.preventDefault();\n              event.stopPropagation();\n              openLightbox(image);\n            });\n          });\n          closeButton.addEventListener(\"click\", closeLightbox);\n          lightbox.addEventListener(\"click\", function(event){ if (event.target === lightbox) { closeLightbox(); } });\n          document.addEventListener(\"keydown\", function(event){ if (event.key === \"Escape\" && lightbox.classList.contains(\"is-open\")) { closeLightbox(); } });\n        })();\n      <\/script>\n\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\">\n{\n    \"@context\": \"https:\/\/schema.org\",\n    \"@graph\": [\n        {\n            \"@type\": \"WebPage\",\n            \"@id\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/dative-covalent-bonding\/#webpage\",\n            \"url\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/dative-covalent-bonding\/\",\n            \"name\": \"Dative Covalent Bonding | Edexcel A Level Chemistry Revision Notes\",\n            \"description\": \"Edexcel A Level Chemistry revision notes on dative covalent bonding, coordinate bonding, lone pair donation, hydronium ion formation and aluminium chloride dimer formation.\",\n            \"isPartOf\": {\n                \"@type\": \"WebSite\",\n                \"@id\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/#website\",\n                \"name\": \"Online Learning System\",\n                \"url\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/\"\n            },\n            \"about\": [\n                {\n                    \"@type\": \"Thing\",\n                    \"name\": \"Dative covalent bonding\"\n                },\n                {\n                    \"@type\": \"Thing\",\n                    \"name\": \"Coordinate bonding\"\n                },\n                {\n                    \"@type\": \"Thing\",\n                    \"name\": \"Hydronium ion\"\n                },\n                {\n                    \"@type\": \"Thing\",\n                    \"name\": \"Aluminium chloride dimer\"\n                }\n            ],\n            \"educationalLevel\": \"A Level\",\n            \"learningResourceType\": \"Revision notes\",\n            \"inLanguage\": \"en-GB\"\n        },\n        {\n            \"@type\": \"Article\",\n            \"@id\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/dative-covalent-bonding\/#article\",\n            \"headline\": \"Dative Covalent Bonding\",\n            \"description\": \"Revision notes explaining dative covalent bonding, coordinate bonding, lone pair donation, hydronium ion formation and aluminium chloride dimer formation.\",\n            \"author\": {\n                \"@type\": \"Person\",\n                \"name\": \"Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah\",\n                \"url\": \"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/in\/doctormohammedfatah\/\"\n            },\n            \"publisher\": {\n                \"@type\": \"Organization\",\n                \"name\": \"Online Learning System\",\n                \"url\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/\",\n                \"logo\": {\n                    \"@type\": \"ImageObject\",\n                    \"url\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/Author-Profile.jpeg\"\n                }\n            },\n            \"mainEntityOfPage\": {\n                \"@id\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/dative-covalent-bonding\/#webpage\"\n            }\n        },\n        {\n            \"@type\": \"BreadcrumbList\",\n            \"@id\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/dative-covalent-bonding\/#breadcrumb\",\n            \"itemListElement\": [\n                {\n                    \"@type\": \"ListItem\",\n                    \"position\": 1,\n                    \"name\": \"Revision Notes\",\n                    \"item\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/\"\n                },\n                {\n                    \"@type\": \"ListItem\",\n                    \"position\": 2,\n                    \"name\": \"A Level Chemistry\",\n                    \"item\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/\"\n                },\n                {\n                    \"@type\": \"ListItem\",\n                    \"position\": 3,\n                    \"name\": \"Edexcel\",\n                    \"item\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/\"\n                },\n                {\n                    \"@type\": \"ListItem\",\n                    \"position\": 4,\n                    \"name\": \"Topic 2 Bonding and Structure\",\n                    \"item\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/\"\n                },\n                {\n                    \"@type\": \"ListItem\",\n                    \"position\": 5,\n                    \"name\": \"Covalent Bonding\",\n                    \"item\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/\"\n                },\n                {\n                    \"@type\": \"ListItem\",\n                    \"position\": 6,\n                    \"name\": \"Dative Covalent Bonding\",\n                    \"item\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/dative-covalent-bonding\/\"\n                }\n            ]\n        },\n        {\n            \"@type\": \"Course\",\n            \"@id\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/product\/covalent-bonding-shapes-of-molecules-edexcel-t2ab\/#course\",\n            \"name\": \"Covalent Bonding, Structure and Shapes of Molecules\",\n            \"description\": \"A paid OLS course covering covalent bonding, structure, molecular shapes, electron-pair repulsion, bond angles, polarity and exam-style practice for Edexcel A Level Chemistry.\",\n            \"provider\": {\n                \"@type\": \"Organization\",\n                \"name\": \"Online Learning System\",\n                \"sameAs\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/\"\n            },\n            \"url\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/product\/covalent-bonding-shapes-of-molecules-edexcel-t2ab\/\"\n        },\n        {\n            \"@type\": \"FAQPage\",\n            \"@id\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel\/topic-2-bonding-and-structure\/covalent-bonding\/dative-covalent-bonding\/#faq\",\n            \"mainEntity\": [\n                {\n                    \"@type\": \"Question\",\n                    \"name\": \"What is a dative covalent bond?\",\n                    \"acceptedAnswer\": {\n                        \"@type\": \"Answer\",\n                        \"text\": \"A dative covalent bond is a covalent bond in which both electrons in the shared pair are donated by the same atom.\"\n                    }\n                },\n                {\n                    \"@type\": \"Question\",\n                    \"name\": \"Is a dative covalent bond different from a normal covalent bond after it forms?\",\n                    \"acceptedAnswer\": {\n                        \"@type\": \"Answer\",\n                        \"text\": \"No. Once a dative covalent bond has formed, it behaves like a normal covalent bond. The difference is that both bonding electrons originally came from one atom.\"\n                    }\n                },\n                {\n                    \"@type\": \"Question\",\n                    \"name\": \"Why can water form a dative covalent bond with H+?\",\n                    \"acceptedAnswer\": {\n                        \"@type\": \"Answer\",\n                        \"text\": \"Water has lone pairs on oxygen, while H+ can accept an electron pair. Oxygen donates a lone pair to H+, forming H3O+.\"\n                    }\n                },\n                {\n                    \"@type\": \"Question\",\n                    \"name\": \"Why does AlCl3 form Al2Cl6?\",\n                    \"acceptedAnswer\": {\n                        \"@type\": \"Answer\",\n                        \"text\": \"In AlCl3, aluminium has only six electrons in its outer shell. Chlorine atoms can donate lone pairs to aluminium atoms in another AlCl3 molecule, forming Al2Cl6.\"\n                    }\n                },\n                {\n                    \"@type\": \"Question\",\n                    \"name\": \"Which way does the arrow point in a dative covalent bond?\",\n                    \"acceptedAnswer\": {\n                        \"@type\": \"Answer\",\n                        \"text\": \"The arrow starts at the lone pair donor and points towards the electron-pair acceptor.\"\n                    }\n                }\n            ]\n        }\n    ]\n}\n<\/script>\n    <\/main>\n<\/section>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Revision Notes \/ A Level Chemistry \/ Edexcel \/ Topic 2 Bonding and Structure \/ Covalent Bonding \/ Dative Covalent Bonding Dative Covalent Bonding A concise revision guide to dative covalent bonds, lone pair donation, coordinate bonding, hydronium ions and aluminium chloride dimer formation for Edexcel A Level Chemistry. Unit: Paper 1 Topic 2: Bonding [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":12,"featured_media":0,"parent":4571,"menu_order":1,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-4583","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4583","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/12"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=4583"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4583\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":24563,"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4583\/revisions\/24563"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4571"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4583"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}