{"id":7692,"date":"2026-09-12T11:56:57","date_gmt":"2026-09-12T10:56:57","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/"},"modified":"2026-09-19T19:38:57","modified_gmt":"2026-09-19T18:38:57","slug":"covalent-bonding","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/","title":{"rendered":"Covalent Bonding"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<section class=\"ols-revision-page ols-covalent-bonding-landing-page\">\n  <style>\n    .ols-revision-page {\n      --navy: #1C244B;\n      --blue: #2563eb;\n      --soft-blue: #eef4ff;\n      --soft-red: #fff7f7;\n      --soft-purple: #f7f0ff;\n      --soft-green: #f0f7f1;\n      --soft-orange: #fff7ed;\n      --gold: #c9973a;\n      --grey-text: #667085;\n      --body-text: #1f2937;\n      --border: rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.14);\n      --shadow: 0 18px 45px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.10);\n      --inner-shadow: 0 10px 26px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.08);\n      font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif;\n      color: var(--navy);\n      background: #ffffff;\n    }\n\n    .ols-revision-page * { box-sizing: border-box; }\n\n    .ols-revision-layout {\n      display: block;\n      max-width: 1450px;\n      margin: 0 auto;\n      padding: 24px 20px 60px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-breadcrumbs {\n      display: flex;\n      flex-wrap: wrap;\n      gap: 8px;\n      margin: 10px 0 22px;\n      font-size: 15px;\n      color: var(--grey-text);\n    }\n\n    .ols-breadcrumbs a,\n    .ols-breadcrumbs span {\n      color: var(--grey-text);\n      text-decoration: none;\n      font-weight: 600;\n    }\n\n    .ols-breadcrumbs a:hover {\n      color: var(--blue);\n      text-decoration: underline;\n      text-underline-offset: 3px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-title-card,\n    .ols-note-card,\n    .ols-related-card,\n    .ols-attribution-card {\n      background: #ffffff;\n      border: 1px solid var(--border);\n      border-radius: 28px;\n      box-shadow: var(--shadow);\n      padding: 34px;\n      margin-bottom: 24px;\n      overflow: hidden;\n    }\n\n    .ols-title-card {\n      background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff 0%, #f8fbff 100%);\n    }\n\n    .ols-title-card h1 {\n      margin: 0 0 18px;\n      font-size: clamp(36px, 5vw, 58px);\n      line-height: 1.08;\n      font-weight: 800;\n      letter-spacing: -0.04em;\n      color: #111827;\n    }\n\n    .ols-page-intro {\n      font-size: 19px;\n      line-height: 1.7;\n      font-weight: 300;\n      color: var(--body-text);\n      margin: 0 0 22px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-badges {\n      display: flex;\n      flex-wrap: wrap;\n      gap: 12px;\n      margin-bottom: 22px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-badge {\n      display: inline-flex;\n      align-items: center;\n      padding: 9px 14px;\n      border-radius: 999px;\n      background: #ffffff;\n      border: 1px solid var(--border);\n      font-size: 15px;\n      font-weight: 600;\n      color: var(--navy);\n    }\n\n    .ols-author {\n      display: flex;\n      align-items: center;\n      gap: 20px;\n      padding: 28px;\n      border-radius: 28px;\n      background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff 0%, #f8fbff 100%);\n      border: 1px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.12);\n      box-shadow: 0 18px 45px rgba(28,36,75,0.10);\n      margin-top: 22px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-author-avatar-img {\n      width: 92px;\n      height: 92px;\n      border-radius: 50%;\n      object-fit: cover;\n      object-position: center;\n      flex-shrink: 0;\n      border: 4px solid #ffffff;\n      box-shadow: 0 14px 32px rgba(28,36,75,0.18), 0 0 0 1px rgba(28,36,75,0.10);\n      transition: transform 0.25s ease, box-shadow 0.25s ease;\n    }\n\n    .ols-author:hover .ols-author-avatar-img {\n      transform: scale(1.04);\n      box-shadow: 0 20px 42px rgba(28,36,75,0.22), 0 0 0 1px rgba(28,36,75,0.10);\n    }\n\n    .ols-author-content { min-width: 0; }\n\n    .ols-author-title {\n      margin: 0 0 4px;\n      font-size: clamp(24px,3vw,34px);\n      line-height: 1.15;\n      font-weight: 700;\n      color: var(--navy);\n      letter-spacing: -0.03em;\n    }\n\n    .ols-author-description {\n      margin: 0;\n      font-size: 17px;\n      line-height: 1.7;\n      font-weight: 300;\n      color: var(--grey-text);\n    }\n\n    .ols-linkedin-pill {\n      display: inline-flex;\n      align-items: center;\n      justify-content: center;\n      gap: 10px;\n      margin-top: 16px;\n      padding: 11px 18px;\n      border-radius: 999px;\n      background: linear-gradient(135deg,#0A66C2,#004182);\n      color: #ffffff;\n      text-decoration: none;\n      font-size: 14px;\n      line-height: 1;\n      font-weight: 700;\n      letter-spacing: 0.01em;\n      box-shadow: 0 10px 22px rgba(10,102,194,0.24);\n      position: relative;\n      overflow: hidden;\n      transition: transform 0.22s ease, box-shadow 0.22s ease;\n    }\n\n    .ols-linkedin-pill::before {\n      content: \"\";\n      position: absolute;\n      top: 0;\n      left: -120%;\n      width: 100%;\n      height: 100%;\n      background: linear-gradient(120deg, rgba(255,255,255,0) 0%, rgba(255,255,255,0.28) 50%, rgba(255,255,255,0) 100%);\n      transition: left 0.7s ease;\n    }\n\n    .ols-linkedin-pill:hover {\n      transform: translateY(-3px) scale(1.03);\n      box-shadow: 0 16px 34px rgba(10,102,194,0.34), 0 0 0 6px rgba(10,102,194,0.10);\n      color: #ffffff;\n    }\n\n    .ols-linkedin-pill:hover::before { left: 120%; }\n\n    .ols-linkedin-icon {\n      width: 18px;\n      height: 18px;\n      display: block;\n      flex-shrink: 0;\n    }\n\n    .ols-note-card.soft { background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff 0%, var(--soft-red) 100%); }\n    .ols-note-card.purple { background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff 0%, var(--soft-purple) 100%); }\n\n    .ols-note-title {\n      display: flex;\n      align-items: center;\n      gap: 14px;\n      margin-bottom: 20px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-note-icon {\n      width: 52px;\n      height: 52px;\n      border-radius: 16px;\n      background: var(--navy);\n      color: #ffffff;\n      display: grid;\n      place-items: center;\n      font-size: 24px;\n      font-weight: 800;\n      flex-shrink: 0;\n    }\n\n    .ols-note-title h2,\n    .ols-related-card h2 {\n      margin: 0;\n      font-size: clamp(28px, 3.5vw, 42px);\n      line-height: 1.15;\n      font-weight: 800;\n      color: #111827;\n      letter-spacing: -0.03em;\n    }\n\n    .ols-related-card h2 { margin-bottom: 14px; }\n\n    .ols-note-card p,\n    .ols-note-card li,\n    .ols-related-card p,\n    .ols-attribution-card p {\n      font-size: clamp(15px, 1.3vw, 18px);\n      line-height: 1.65;\n      font-weight: 300;\n      color: var(--body-text);\n    }\n\n    .ols-note-card strong,\n    .ols-related-card strong,\n    .ols-attribution-card strong {\n      font-weight: 700;\n      color: var(--navy);\n    }\n\n    .ols-key-box {\n      margin-top: 20px;\n      background: var(--soft-green);\n      border: 1px solid rgba(63, 143, 70, 0.25);\n      border-radius: 20px;\n      padding: 18px 20px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-key-box p {\n      margin: 0;\n      font-weight: 400;\n      color: var(--navy);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-grid {\n      display: grid;\n      grid-template-columns: repeat(3, minmax(0, 1fr));\n      gap: 18px;\n      margin-top: 26px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card {\n      position: relative;\n      display: grid;\n      grid-template-rows: auto 1fr auto;\n      min-height: 285px;\n      padding: 24px;\n      border-radius: 24px;\n      border: 1px solid rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.13);\n      background:\n        radial-gradient(circle at top right, rgba(37, 99, 235, 0.13), transparent 34%),\n        linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff 0%, #f8fbff 100%);\n      color: var(--navy);\n      text-decoration: none;\n      overflow: hidden;\n      box-shadow: var(--inner-shadow);\n      transition: transform 0.24s ease, box-shadow 0.24s ease, border-color 0.24s ease, background 0.24s ease;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card:hover {\n      transform: translateY(-6px);\n      border-color: rgba(37, 99, 235, 0.28);\n      box-shadow: 0 24px 52px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.15);\n      color: var(--navy);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card::before {\n      content: \"\";\n      position: absolute;\n      top: -60px;\n      right: -60px;\n      width: 145px;\n      height: 145px;\n      border-radius: 50%;\n      background: rgba(37, 99, 235, 0.08);\n      transition: transform 0.28s ease, background 0.28s ease;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card:hover::before {\n      transform: scale(1.22);\n      background: rgba(37, 99, 235, 0.13);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-visual {\n      position: relative;\n      z-index: 1;\n      min-height: 94px;\n      display: flex;\n      align-items: center;\n      justify-content: center;\n      margin-bottom: 18px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-icon {\n      position: relative;\n      width: 150px;\n      height: 94px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-line,\n    .ols-ert-arrow,\n    .ols-ert-label-mini,\n    .ols-ert-ion,\n    .ols-ert-pull,\n    .ols-ert-lattice {\n      position: absolute;\n      display: block;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-atom,\n    .ols-ert-shared,\n    .ols-ert-donor,\n    .ols-ert-acceptor,\n    .ols-ert-bond-pull {\n      position: absolute;\n      display: block;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-covalent .ols-ert-atom {\n      width: 42px;\n      height: 42px;\n      border-radius: 50%;\n      display: grid;\n      place-items: center;\n      color: #ffffff;\n      font-size: 14px;\n      font-weight: 800;\n      box-shadow: 0 12px 24px rgba(28,36,75,0.14);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-covalent .ols-ert-atom.left {\n      left: 25px;\n      top: 25px;\n      background: var(--blue);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-covalent .ols-ert-atom.right {\n      right: 25px;\n      top: 25px;\n      background: var(--gold);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-covalent .ols-ert-shared {\n      left: 67px;\n      top: 43px;\n      width: 18px;\n      height: 8px;\n      border-radius: 999px;\n      background: var(--navy);\n      box-shadow: 16px 0 0 var(--navy);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-covalent .ols-ert-label-mini {\n      left: 39px;\n      bottom: 8px;\n      color: var(--blue);\n      font-size: 13px;\n      font-weight: 800;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-dative .ols-ert-donor {\n      left: 24px;\n      top: 24px;\n      width: 44px;\n      height: 44px;\n      border-radius: 16px;\n      display: grid;\n      place-items: center;\n      background: rgba(238, 244, 255, 0.96);\n      border: 3px solid rgba(37, 99, 235, 0.32);\n      color: var(--blue);\n      font-size: 26px;\n      line-height: 1;\n      font-weight: 800;\n      box-shadow: 0 10px 22px rgba(28,36,75,0.10);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-dative .ols-ert-arrow {\n      left: 73px;\n      top: 44px;\n      width: 38px;\n      height: 3px;\n      border-radius: 999px;\n      background: rgba(201,151,58,0.88);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-dative .ols-ert-arrow::after {\n      content: \"\";\n      position: absolute;\n      right: -1px;\n      top: 50%;\n      transform: translateY(-50%);\n      border-left: 10px solid rgba(201,151,58,0.88);\n      border-top: 6px solid transparent;\n      border-bottom: 6px solid transparent;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-dative .ols-ert-acceptor {\n      right: 18px;\n      top: 28px;\n      min-width: 42px;\n      height: 38px;\n      padding: 0 8px;\n      border-radius: 14px;\n      display: grid;\n      place-items: center;\n      color: #ffffff;\n      font-size: 14px;\n      font-weight: 800;\n      background: var(--gold);\n      box-shadow: 0 8px 18px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.16);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-dative .ols-ert-label-mini {\n      left: 24px;\n      bottom: 8px;\n      color: var(--gold);\n      font-size: 13px;\n      font-weight: 800;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-electronegativity .ols-ert-atom {\n      border-radius: 50%;\n      display: grid;\n      place-items: center;\n      color: #ffffff;\n      font-size: 13px;\n      font-weight: 800;\n      box-shadow: 0 12px 24px rgba(28,36,75,0.14);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-electronegativity .ols-ert-atom.small {\n      left: 25px;\n      top: 30px;\n      width: 34px;\n      height: 34px;\n      background: var(--blue);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-electronegativity .ols-ert-atom.large {\n      right: 21px;\n      top: 22px;\n      width: 50px;\n      height: 50px;\n      background: var(--gold);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-electronegativity .ols-ert-bond-pull {\n      left: 63px;\n      top: 45px;\n      width: 42px;\n      height: 4px;\n      border-radius: 999px;\n      background: rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.58);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-electronegativity .ols-ert-bond-pull::after {\n      content: \"\";\n      position: absolute;\n      right: -1px;\n      top: 50%;\n      transform: translateY(-50%);\n      border-left: 11px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.58);\n      border-top: 7px solid transparent;\n      border-bottom: 7px solid transparent;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-electronegativity .ols-ert-label-mini {\n      left: 35px;\n      bottom: 8px;\n      color: var(--blue);\n      font-size: 13px;\n      font-weight: 800;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card h3 {\n      position: relative;\n      z-index: 1;\n      margin: 0 0 10px;\n      font-size: 23px;\n      line-height: 1.2;\n      font-weight: 800;\n      letter-spacing: -0.02em;\n      color: #111827;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card p {\n      position: relative;\n      z-index: 1;\n      margin: 0;\n      font-size: 15px;\n      line-height: 1.6;\n      font-weight: 300;\n      color: var(--body-text);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card,\n    .ols-ert-card *,\n    .ols-ert-card:hover,\n    .ols-ert-card:hover *,\n    .ols-related-item,\n    .ols-related-item *,\n    .ols-related-item:hover,\n    .ols-related-item:hover * {\n      text-decoration: none !important;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-meta {\n      position: relative;\n      z-index: 1;\n      display: inline-flex;\n      align-items: center;\n      justify-content: center;\n      margin-top: 20px;\n      padding: 10px 14px;\n      border-radius: 999px;\n      background: var(--navy);\n      color: #ffffff;\n      font-size: 13px;\n      font-weight: 700;\n      width: fit-content;\n      transition: background 0.22s ease, transform 0.22s ease;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card:hover .ols-ert-meta {\n      background: var(--blue);\n      transform: translateX(4px);\n    }\n\n    .ols-related-grid {\n      display: grid;\n      grid-template-columns: repeat(3, minmax(0, 1fr));\n      gap: 16px;\n      margin-top: 18px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-related-item {\n      border: 1px solid var(--border);\n      border-radius: 18px;\n      padding: 18px;\n      background: #ffffff;\n      color: var(--navy);\n      text-decoration: none;\n      font-weight: 600;\n      line-height: 1.5;\n      transition: transform 0.2s ease, box-shadow 0.2s ease, color 0.2s ease;\n    }\n\n    .ols-related-item:hover {\n      transform: translateY(-2px);\n      box-shadow: 0 10px 22px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.08);\n      color: var(--blue);\n    }\n\n    .ols-attribution-card {\n      background: linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff 0%, #f8fbff 100%);\n    }\n\n    .ols-attribution-card p {\n      margin: 0;\n      font-size: 14px;\n      color: var(--grey-text);\n    }\n\n    @media (max-width: 1050px) {\n      .ols-revision-layout { grid-template-columns: 1fr; }\n      .ols-main { max-width: none; }\n      .ols-ert-grid { grid-template-columns: repeat(2, minmax(0, 1fr)); }\n      .ols-related-grid { grid-template-columns: repeat(2, minmax(0, 1fr)); }\n    }\n\n    @media (max-width: 760px) {\n      .ols-revision-layout { padding: 14px 12px 44px; }\n      .ols-title-card, .ols-note-card, .ols-related-card, .ols-attribution-card { padding: 24px 18px; border-radius: 22px; }\n      .ols-note-title { align-items: flex-start; }\n      .ols-author { align-items: flex-start; padding: 22px 18px; border-radius: 22px; }\n      .ols-author-avatar-img { width: 72px; height: 72px; }\n      .ols-author-title { font-size: 24px; }\n      .ols-author-description { font-size: 15px; }\n      .ols-ert-grid { grid-template-columns: 1fr; }\n      .ols-ert-card { min-height: 255px; }\n      .ols-related-grid { grid-template-columns: 1fr; }\n    }\n\n    \/* =========================================================\n       SIMPLE COLOURFUL LANDING PAGE CARD VISUALS\n       Robust symbol-based cards for WordPress landing pages.\n    ========================================================= *\/\n\n    .ols-ert-grid {\n      grid-template-columns: repeat(3, minmax(0, 1fr)) !important;\n      gap: 22px !important;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card {\n      display: flex !important;\n      flex-direction: column !important;\n      padding: 0 !important;\n      min-height: 0 !important;\n      border-radius: 24px !important;\n      overflow: hidden !important;\n      background: #ffffff !important;\n      box-shadow: 0 14px 34px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.10) !important;\n      transition:\n        transform 0.28s cubic-bezier(0.34, 1.56, 0.64, 1),\n        box-shadow 0.28s ease,\n        border-color 0.28s ease !important;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card:hover {\n      transform: translateY(-10px) scale(1.02) !important;\n      box-shadow: 0 28px 56px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.16) !important;\n      border-color: rgba(37, 99, 235, 0.35) !important;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card::before {\n      display: none !important;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card-img-wrap {\n      position: relative;\n      width: 100%;\n      aspect-ratio: 4 \/ 3;\n      overflow: hidden;\n      background: var(--soft-blue);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card-img-wrap::after {\n      content: \"\";\n      position: absolute;\n      inset: 0;\n      background: linear-gradient(180deg, transparent 40%, rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.22) 100%);\n      opacity: 0;\n      transition: opacity 0.28s ease;\n      z-index: 1;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card:hover .ols-ert-card-img-wrap::after {\n      opacity: 1;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card-num {\n      position: absolute;\n      top: 14px;\n      left: 14px;\n      width: 34px;\n      height: 34px;\n      border-radius: 50%;\n      background: var(--navy);\n      color: #ffffff;\n      font-size: 13px;\n      font-weight: 800;\n      display: flex;\n      align-items: center;\n      justify-content: center;\n      z-index: 4;\n      box-shadow: 0 6px 16px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.30);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card-status {\n      position: absolute;\n      top: 14px;\n      right: 14px;\n      padding: 5px 11px;\n      border-radius: 999px;\n      background: #eaf3de;\n      color: #3B6D11;\n      font-size: 10px;\n      font-weight: 800;\n      letter-spacing: 0.01em;\n      z-index: 4;\n      box-shadow: 0 6px 16px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.12);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card-body {\n      padding: 20px 20px 24px;\n      flex: 1;\n      display: flex;\n      flex-direction: column;\n      gap: 8px;\n      background: #ffffff;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card-body h3 {\n      margin: 0 !important;\n      font-size: 18px !important;\n      line-height: 1.25 !important;\n      font-weight: 800 !important;\n      letter-spacing: -0.025em !important;\n      color: #111827 !important;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card-body p {\n      margin: 0 !important;\n      font-size: 13px !important;\n      line-height: 1.62 !important;\n      font-weight: 300 !important;\n      color: var(--grey-text) !important;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-meta {\n      margin-top: 12px !important;\n      padding: 0 !important;\n      background: transparent !important;\n      color: var(--blue) !important;\n      font-size: 13px !important;\n      font-weight: 800 !important;\n      display: inline-flex !important;\n      align-items: center !important;\n      gap: 6px !important;\n      transition: transform 0.22s ease, color 0.22s ease !important;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-meta::after {\n      content: \"\u2192\";\n      font-size: 16px;\n      line-height: 1;\n      transition: transform 0.22s ease;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card:hover .ols-ert-meta {\n      background: transparent !important;\n      transform: none !important;\n      color: var(--blue) !important;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-card:hover .ols-ert-meta::after {\n      transform: translateX(4px);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-visual {\n      position: absolute !important;\n      inset: 0 !important;\n      min-height: 0 !important;\n      margin: 0 !important;\n      padding: 32px 24px 24px !important;\n      overflow: hidden;\n      display: flex !important;\n      align-items: center !important;\n      justify-content: center !important;\n      z-index: 0 !important;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-visual::before,\n    .ols-ert-visual::after {\n      content: \"\";\n      position: absolute;\n      border-radius: 999px;\n      opacity: 0.72;\n      filter: blur(1px);\n      z-index: 0;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-visual::before {\n      width: 170px;\n      height: 170px;\n      left: -58px;\n      bottom: -66px;\n      background: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.35);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-visual::after {\n      width: 118px;\n      height: 118px;\n      right: -42px;\n      top: -34px;\n      background: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.28);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-visual-panel {\n      position: relative;\n      z-index: 2;\n      width: min(84%, 260px);\n      min-height: 150px;\n      border-radius: 24px;\n      border: 1px solid rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.48);\n      background: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.78);\n      box-shadow: 0 18px 38px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.18);\n      backdrop-filter: blur(10px);\n      -webkit-backdrop-filter: blur(10px);\n      display: flex;\n      flex-direction: column;\n      align-items: center;\n      justify-content: center;\n      text-align: center;\n      padding: 18px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-visual-kicker {\n      display: inline-flex;\n      align-items: center;\n      justify-content: center;\n      min-height: 25px;\n      padding: 4px 10px;\n      border-radius: 999px;\n      background: rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.08);\n      color: var(--navy);\n      font-size: 10px;\n      font-weight: 800;\n      text-transform: uppercase;\n      letter-spacing: 0.08em;\n      margin-bottom: 10px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-simple-symbol {\n      display: flex;\n      align-items: center;\n      justify-content: center;\n      min-height: 54px;\n      color: var(--navy);\n      font-size: clamp(30px, 4vw, 44px);\n      line-height: 1;\n      font-weight: 800;\n      letter-spacing: -0.05em;\n      white-space: nowrap;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-simple-symbol.small {\n      font-size: clamp(26px, 3.5vw, 38px);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-visual-main {\n      font-size: clamp(22px, 3vw, 32px);\n      font-weight: 800;\n      color: var(--navy);\n      line-height: 1.05;\n      letter-spacing: -0.05em;\n      margin-top: 10px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-visual-sub {\n      font-size: 11px;\n      font-weight: 500;\n      color: #4b5575;\n      line-height: 1.45;\n      margin-top: 8px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-visual--covalent {\n      background:\n        radial-gradient(circle at 24% 18%, rgba(255,255,255,0.42), transparent 24%),\n        linear-gradient(135deg, #eef6ff 0%, #8fb9ff 45%, #467FF7 100%);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-visual--dative {\n      background:\n        radial-gradient(circle at 22% 18%, rgba(255,255,255,0.42), transparent 24%),\n        linear-gradient(135deg, #fff8e8 0%, #e5bd62 45%, #9a6b13 100%);\n    }\n\n    .ols-ert-visual--electronegativity {\n      background:\n        radial-gradient(circle at 24% 18%, rgba(255,255,255,0.42), transparent 24%),\n        linear-gradient(135deg, #f4ecff 0%, #b997ff 45%, #7356d8 100%);\n    }\n\n    @media (max-width: 760px) {\n      .ols-ert-grid {\n        grid-template-columns: 1fr !important;\n      }\n\n      .ols-ert-card-img-wrap {\n        aspect-ratio: 16 \/ 10;\n      }\n\n      .ols-ert-visual-panel {\n        width: min(88%, 280px);\n        min-height: 140px;\n      }\n    }\n\n\n  :root { --ols-navy: #1C244B; --ols-blue: #467FF7; --ols-soft-blue: #EEF4FF; --ols-border: rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.12); --ols-shadow: 0 18px 45px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.12); --ols-shadow-soft: 0 10px 28px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.09); --ols-muted: #4b5575; }\n    .ols-sub-cards-grid { margin-top: 26px; }\n    .ols-sub-cards-grid {\n      display: grid;\n      grid-template-columns: repeat(3, minmax(0, 1fr));\n      gap: 20px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-card {\n      display: flex;\n      flex-direction: column;\n      background: #ffffff;\n      border: 1px solid var(--ols-border);\n      border-radius: 22px;\n      overflow: hidden;\n      box-shadow: var(--ols-shadow-soft);\n      text-decoration: none;\n      color: var(--ols-navy);\n      transition:\n        transform 0.28s cubic-bezier(0.34, 1.56, 0.64, 1),\n        box-shadow 0.28s ease,\n        border-color 0.28s ease;\n      position: relative;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-card.ols-sub-card--available:hover {\n      transform: translateY(-10px) scale(1.02);\n      box-shadow: 0 28px 56px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.16);\n      border-color: rgba(70, 127, 247, 0.35);\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-card.ols-sub-card--available:hover .ols-sub-card-img-wrap::after {\n      opacity: 1;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-card-img-wrap {\n      position: relative;\n      width: 100%;\n      aspect-ratio: 4 \/ 3;\n      background: var(--ols-soft-blue);\n      overflow: hidden;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-card-img-wrap::after {\n      content: \"\";\n      position: absolute;\n      inset: 0;\n      background: linear-gradient(180deg, transparent 40%, rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.20) 100%);\n      opacity: 0;\n      transition: opacity 0.28s ease;\n      z-index: 1;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-card-num {\n      position: absolute;\n      top: 12px;\n      left: 12px;\n      width: 32px;\n      height: 32px;\n      border-radius: 50%;\n      background: var(--ols-navy);\n      color: #ffffff;\n      font-size: 13px;\n      font-weight: 800;\n      display: flex;\n      align-items: center;\n      justify-content: center;\n      z-index: 3;\n      box-shadow: 0 4px 12px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.28);\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-card-status {\n      position: absolute;\n      top: 12px;\n      right: 12px;\n      padding: 4px 10px;\n      border-radius: 999px;\n      font-size: 10px;\n      font-weight: 700;\n      z-index: 3;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-card-status--available {\n      background: #eaf3de;\n      color: #3B6D11;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-card-body {\n      padding: 18px 18px 22px;\n      flex: 1;\n      display: flex;\n      flex-direction: column;\n      gap: 6px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-card-title {\n      font-size: 14px;\n      font-weight: 700;\n      color: var(--ols-navy);\n      line-height: 1.35;\n      margin: 0;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-card-desc {\n      font-size: 12px;\n      font-weight: 300;\n      color: var(--ols-muted);\n      line-height: 1.6;\n      margin: 0;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-card-cta {\n      display: inline-flex;\n      align-items: center;\n      gap: 5px;\n      margin-top: 10px;\n      font-size: 12px;\n      font-weight: 700;\n      color: var(--ols-blue);\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-card-cta svg {\n      width: 14px;\n      height: 14px;\n      transition: transform 0.2s ease;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-card--available:hover .ols-sub-card-cta svg {\n      transform: translateX(3px);\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-visual {\n      position: absolute;\n      inset: 0;\n      display: flex;\n      align-items: center;\n      justify-content: center;\n      padding: 32px 24px 24px;\n      overflow: hidden;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-visual::before,\n    .ols-sub-visual::after {\n      content: \"\";\n      position: absolute;\n      border-radius: 999px;\n      opacity: 0.75;\n      filter: blur(1px);\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-visual::before {\n      width: 170px;\n      height: 170px;\n      left: -58px;\n      bottom: -66px;\n      background: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.35);\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-visual::after {\n      width: 118px;\n      height: 118px;\n      right: -42px;\n      top: -34px;\n      background: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.28);\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-visual-panel {\n      position: relative;\n      z-index: 2;\n      width: min(82%, 260px);\n      min-height: 118px;\n      border-radius: 24px;\n      border: 1px solid rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.45);\n      background: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.76);\n      box-shadow: 0 18px 38px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.18);\n      backdrop-filter: blur(10px);\n      display: flex;\n      flex-direction: column;\n      align-items: center;\n      justify-content: center;\n      text-align: center;\n      padding: 18px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-visual-kicker {\n      display: inline-flex;\n      align-items: center;\n      justify-content: center;\n      min-height: 25px;\n      padding: 4px 10px;\n      border-radius: 999px;\n      background: rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.08);\n      color: var(--ols-navy);\n      font-size: 10px;\n      font-weight: 800;\n      text-transform: uppercase;\n      letter-spacing: 0.08em;\n      margin-bottom: 10px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-visual-main {\n      font-size: clamp(24px, 3vw, 34px);\n      font-weight: 800;\n      color: var(--ols-navy);\n      line-height: 1.05;\n      letter-spacing: -0.05em;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-visual-sub {\n      font-size: 11px;\n      font-weight: 500;\n      color: #4b5575;\n      line-height: 1.45;\n      margin-top: 8px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-visual--particles {\n      background:\n        radial-gradient(circle at 24% 18%, rgba(255,255,255,0.42), transparent 24%),\n        linear-gradient(135deg, #eef6ff 0%, #8fb9ff 45%, #467FF7 100%);\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-visual--equations {\n      background:\n        radial-gradient(circle at 22% 18%, rgba(255,255,255,0.42), transparent 24%),\n        linear-gradient(135deg, #fff8e8 0%, #e5bd62 45%, #9a6b13 100%);\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-visual--moles {\n      background:\n        radial-gradient(circle at 24% 18%, rgba(255,255,255,0.42), transparent 24%),\n        linear-gradient(135deg, #f4ecff 0%, #b997ff 45%, #7356d8 100%);\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-visual--formulae {\n      background:\n        radial-gradient(circle at 22% 18%, rgba(255,255,255,0.35), transparent 24%),\n        linear-gradient(135deg, #eefbf3 0%, #69c98b 45%, #1f7f50 100%);\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-visual--solutions {\n      background:\n        radial-gradient(circle at 22% 18%, rgba(255,255,255,0.40), transparent 24%),\n        linear-gradient(135deg, #eefcff 0%, #72d4df 45%, #168aa0 100%);\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-particle-diagram {\n      width: 92px;\n      height: 64px;\n      position: relative;\n      margin: 0 auto 12px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-particle-dot {\n      position: absolute;\n      width: 22px;\n      height: 22px;\n      border-radius: 50%;\n      background: var(--ols-navy);\n      box-shadow: 0 0 0 7px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.08);\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-particle-dot.d1 { left: 6px; top: 23px; background: #467FF7; }\n    .ols-sub-particle-dot.d2 { left: 36px; top: 8px; }\n    .ols-sub-particle-dot.d3 { right: 6px; top: 23px; background: #c9973a; }\n\n    .ols-sub-equation-line {\n      font-size: 24px;\n      font-weight: 800;\n      letter-spacing: -0.03em;\n      color: var(--ols-navy);\n      margin: 0 auto 12px;\n      white-space: nowrap;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-mole-stack {\n      width: 88px;\n      height: 58px;\n      position: relative;\n      margin: 0 auto 12px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-mole-stack span {\n      position: absolute;\n      width: 26px;\n      height: 26px;\n      border-radius: 50%;\n      background: var(--ols-blue);\n      border: 2px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.65);\n      box-shadow: 0 6px 14px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.12);\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-mole-stack span:nth-child(1) { left: 8px; top: 25px; }\n    .ols-sub-mole-stack span:nth-child(2) { left: 31px; top: 8px; background: var(--ols-navy); }\n    .ols-sub-mole-stack span:nth-child(3) { right: 8px; top: 25px; background: #7356d8; }\n\n    .ols-sub-formula-box {\n      width: 128px;\n      min-width: 128px;\n      height: 62px;\n      border-radius: 16px;\n      border: 2px solid rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.45);\n      display: flex;\n      align-items: center;\n      justify-content: center;\n      color: var(--ols-navy);\n      font-size: 25px;\n      font-weight: 800;\n      line-height: 1;\n      letter-spacing: -0.02em;\n      white-space: nowrap;\n      margin: 0 auto 12px;\n      background: rgba(255,255,255,0.35);\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-formula-box sub {\n      font-size: 0.58em;\n      line-height: 0;\n      vertical-align: sub;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-solution-icon {\n      width: 76px;\n      height: 64px;\n      position: relative;\n      margin: 0 auto 12px;\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-solution-icon::before {\n      content: \"\";\n      position: absolute;\n      left: 18px;\n      top: 4px;\n      width: 40px;\n      height: 56px;\n      border: 3px solid rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.62);\n      border-radius: 6px 6px 18px 18px;\n      background: linear-gradient(180deg, rgba(255,255,255,0.40) 0%, rgba(70,127,247,0.18) 45%, rgba(70,127,247,0.50) 46%, rgba(70,127,247,0.50) 100%);\n    }\n\n    .ols-sub-solution-icon::after {\n      content: \"pV\";\n      position: absolute;\n      left: 24px;\n      top: 25px;\n      font-size: 16px;\n      font-weight: 800;\n      color: var(--ols-navy);\n    }\n\n    \/* =========================================================\n       SPECIFICATION SECTION\n    ========================================================= *\/\n    @media (max-width: 1024px) { .ols-sub-cards-grid { grid-template-columns: repeat(2, minmax(0, 1fr)); } }\n    @media (max-width: 640px) { .ols-sub-cards-grid { grid-template-columns: 1fr; gap: 14px; } }\n    .ols-sub-card, .ols-sub-card *, .ols-sub-card:hover, .ols-sub-card:hover * { text-decoration: none !important; }\n    .ols-sub-card--soon { filter: grayscale(1); opacity: 0.62; cursor: not-allowed; }\n    .ols-sub-card-status--soon { background: #6b7280; color: #ffffff; }\n    .ols-sub-cards-grid .ols-sub-visual-main.ols-sub-visual-main { font-size: clamp(19px, 1.9vw, 26px) !important; line-height: 1.08; }\n    .ols-sub-cards-grid .ols-sub-visual-panel { width: min(86%, 270px); padding: 14px; }\n    .ols-sub-card .ols-sub-card-title.ols-sub-card-title { font-size: 14px; font-weight: 700; color: #1C244B; line-height: 1.35; margin: 0; }\n    .ols-sub-card .ols-sub-card-desc.ols-sub-card-desc { font-size: 12px; font-weight: 300; color: #4b5575; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0; }\n    .ols-sub-cards-grid .ols-sub-visual-main.ols-sub-visual-main--long { font-size: clamp(15px, 1.35vw, 19px) !important; line-height: 1.12; letter-spacing: -0.03em; }\n    .ols-sub-cards-grid .ols-sub-visual-main.ols-sub-visual-main--mid { font-size: clamp(17px, 1.6vw, 22px) !important; }\n    .ols-sub-cards-grid .ols-sub-visual-sub { font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.35; }\n<\/style>\n\n  <aside class=\"ols-sidebar\">\n  <div class=\"ols-sidebar-header\">\n    <h3>Revision Notes<\/h3>\n    <p>Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry<\/p>\n  <\/div>\n  <div class=\"ols-topic-group\">\n    <h4>3.4 Covalent Bonding<\/h4>\n    <ul class=\"ols-topic-list\">\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/\">Part overview<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/nature-of-covalent-bonding\/\">Nature of Covalent Bonding<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/dative-covalent-bonding\/\">Dative Covalent Bonding<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/giant-covalent-structures\/\">Giant Covalent Structures<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/sigma-and-pi-bonds-and-hybridisation\/\">Sigma and Pi Bonds and Hybridisation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/bond-energy-and-bond-length\/\">Bond Energy and Bond Length<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/polar-molecules\/\">Non-Polar and Polar Molecules<\/a><\/li>\n    <\/ul>\n  <\/div>\n  <div class=\"ols-topic-group\">\n    <h4>Other Topic 3 Parts<\/h4>\n    <ul class=\"ols-topic-list\">\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/\">Topic 3 overview<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/electronegativity\/\">3.1 Electronegativity<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/\">3.5 Shapes of Molecules<\/a><\/li>\n    <\/ul>\n  <\/div>\n<\/aside>\n<script>\r\n(function() {\r\n  function normalisePath(path) {\r\n    return String(path || '')\r\n      .split('?')[0]\r\n      .split('#')[0]\r\n      .replace(\/\\\/+$\/, '')\r\n      .toLowerCase();\r\n  }\r\n\r\n  function highlightActive() {\r\n    var sidebar = document.querySelector('.ols-sidebar');\r\n    if (!sidebar) return false;\r\n\r\n    var currentPath = normalisePath(window.location.pathname);\r\n    var links = sidebar.querySelectorAll('a[href]');\r\n    var matched = null;\r\n    var matchedLength = 0;\r\n\r\n    sidebar.querySelectorAll('.active, .active-main, .parent-active').forEach(function(item) {\r\n      item.classList.remove('active', 'active-main', 'parent-active');\r\n    });\r\n\r\n    sidebar.querySelectorAll('a[data-ols-disabled-parent=\"1\"], a[aria-current]').forEach(function(a) {\r\n      a.removeAttribute('aria-current');\r\n      a.removeAttribute('tabindex');\r\n      a.removeAttribute('data-ols-disabled-parent');\r\n    });\r\n\r\n    links.forEach(function(a) {\r\n      try {\r\n        var href = a.getAttribute('href');\r\n        if (!href || href === '#' || href.charAt(0) === '#') return;\r\n        var linkPath = normalisePath(new URL(href, window.location.origin).pathname);\r\n        if (!linkPath) return;\r\n        if (currentPath === linkPath || currentPath.indexOf(linkPath + '\/') === 0) {\r\n          if (linkPath.length > matchedLength) {\r\n            matched = a;\r\n            matchedLength = linkPath.length;\r\n          }\r\n        }\r\n      } catch(e) {}\r\n    });\r\n\r\n    if (matched) {\r\n      var matchedLi = matched.closest('li');\r\n      var parentSub = matched.closest('.ols-subtopic-list');\r\n\r\n      if (parentSub) {\r\n        if (matchedLi) {\r\n          matchedLi.classList.add('active');\r\n          matched.setAttribute('aria-current', 'page');\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        var parentLi = parentSub.closest('li');\r\n        while (parentLi) {\r\n          parentLi.classList.add('parent-active', 'active-main');\r\n\r\n          var parentLink = parentLi.querySelector(':scope > a');\r\n          if (parentLink) {\r\n            parentLink.setAttribute('aria-current', 'true');\r\n            parentLink.setAttribute('tabindex', '-1');\r\n            parentLink.setAttribute('data-ols-disabled-parent', '1');\r\n          }\r\n\r\n          var higherSub = parentLi.parentElement.closest('.ols-subtopic-list');\r\n          parentLi = higherSub ? higherSub.closest('li') : null;\r\n        }\r\n      } else {\r\n        if (matchedLi) {\r\n          matchedLi.classList.add('parent-active', 'active-main');\r\n          matched.setAttribute('aria-current', 'page');\r\n          matched.setAttribute('tabindex', '-1');\r\n          matched.setAttribute('data-ols-disabled-parent', '1');\r\n        }\r\n      }\r\n    }\r\n\r\n    return true;\r\n  }\r\n\r\n  if (!highlightActive()) {\r\n    document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', highlightActive);\r\n  }\r\n})();\r\n<\/script>\n\n  <main class=\"ols-main\">\n    <nav class=\"ols-breadcrumbs\" aria-label=\"Breadcrumb\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/\">Revision Notes<\/a> \/\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/\">A Level Chemistry<\/a> \/\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/\">Cambridge International (CIE)<\/a> \/\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/\">Topic 3 Chemical Bonding<\/a> \/\n<span>Covalent Bonding<\/span>\n<\/nav>\n\n    <header class=\"ols-title-card\">\n      <h1>Covalent Bonding<\/h1>\n      <p class=\"ols-page-intro\">Use this landing page to move quickly between the main covalent bonding revision pages for Topic 3. Each card links to a focused page covering covalent bond formation, dative covalent bonding and electronegativity.<\/p>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-badges\">\n        <div class=\"ols-badge\">AS Level<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-badge\">Topic 3: Chemical Bonding<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-badge\">9701 Papers 1 and 2<\/div>\n      <\/div>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-author\">\n        <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-author-avatar-img\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/Author-Profile.jpeg\" alt=\"Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah\">\n\n        <div class=\"ols-author-content\">\n          <h2 class=\"ols-author-title\">Written by:<br><span>Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah<\/span><\/h2>\n          <p class=\"ols-author-description\">Chemistry specialist revision notes for A Level Chemistry.<\/p>\n\n          <a class=\"ols-linkedin-pill\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/in\/doctormohammedfatah\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">\n            <svg class=\"ols-linkedin-icon\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"currentColor\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n              <path d=\"M4.98 3.5C4.98 4.88 3.86 6 2.48 6S0 4.88 0 3.5 1.12 1 2.48 1s2.5 1.12 2.5 2.5zM.5 8h4V24h-4V8zm7 0h3.8v2.2h.1c.5-.9 1.8-2.2 3.9-2.2 4.2 0 5 2.8 5 6.4V24h-4v-7.6c0-1.8 0-4.2-2.6-4.2s-3 2-3 4v7.8h-4V8z\"><\/path>\n            <\/svg>\n            View LinkedIn Profile\n          <\/a>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/div>\n    <\/header>\n\n    <article class=\"ols-note-card soft\">\n      <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">1<\/div>\n        <h2>Choose a Covalent Bonding Page<\/h2>\n      <\/div>\n\n      <p>Covalent bonding forms when atoms share pairs of electrons. These pages separate the key ideas so that students can revise ordinary covalent bonds, dative covalent bonds and how electronegativity affects bond polarity.<\/p>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-key-box\">\n        <p><strong>Key idea:<\/strong> A covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons attracted to the nuclei of both bonded atoms. Differences in electronegativity can make that shared pair unevenly distributed.<\/p>\n      <\/div>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-sub-cards-grid\">\n        <a class=\"ols-sub-card ols-sub-card--available\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/nature-of-covalent-bonding\/\">\n          <div class=\"ols-sub-card-img-wrap\">\n            <div class=\"ols-sub-visual ols-sub-visual--particles\">\n              <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-panel\">\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-kicker\">Shared electrons<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-equation-line\" aria-hidden=\"true\">Cl\u2014Cl<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-main ols-sub-visual-main--mid\">Nature of Covalent Bonding<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-sub\">shared pairs and simple molecules<\/div>\n              <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-sub-card-num\">1<\/div>\n            <span class=\"ols-sub-card-status ols-sub-card-status--available\">Available<\/span>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-sub-card-body\">\n            <p class=\"ols-sub-card-title\">Nature of Covalent Bonding<\/p>\n            <p class=\"ols-sub-card-desc\">Revise how atoms share electron pairs, including dot-and-cross diagrams and simple molecular substances.<\/p>\n            <span class=\"ols-sub-card-cta\">\n              Start revising\n              <svg viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><path d=\"M3 8h10M9 4l4 4-4 4\"><\/path><\/svg>\n            <\/span>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/a>\n        <a class=\"ols-sub-card ols-sub-card--available\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/dative-covalent-bonding\/\">\n          <div class=\"ols-sub-card-img-wrap\">\n            <div class=\"ols-sub-visual ols-sub-visual--particles\">\n              <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-panel\">\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-kicker\">Coordinate bonding<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-equation-line\" aria-hidden=\"true\">:N \u2192 H\u207a<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-main ols-sub-visual-main--mid\">Dative Covalent Bonding<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-sub\">one atom donates both electrons<\/div>\n              <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-sub-card-num\">2<\/div>\n            <span class=\"ols-sub-card-status ols-sub-card-status--available\">Available<\/span>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-sub-card-body\">\n            <p class=\"ols-sub-card-title\">Dative Covalent Bonding<\/p>\n            <p class=\"ols-sub-card-desc\">Learn how a dative covalent bond forms when both electrons in the shared pair are donated by the same atom.<\/p>\n            <span class=\"ols-sub-card-cta\">\n              Start revising\n              <svg viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><path d=\"M3 8h10M9 4l4 4-4 4\"><\/path><\/svg>\n            <\/span>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/a>\n        <a class=\"ols-sub-card ols-sub-card--available\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/giant-covalent-structures\/\">\n          <div class=\"ols-sub-card-img-wrap\">\n            <div class=\"ols-sub-visual ols-sub-visual--particles\">\n              <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-panel\">\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-kicker\">Network solids<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-equation-line\" aria-hidden=\"true\">C\u2013C\u2013C\u2013C<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-main ols-sub-visual-main--mid\">Giant Covalent Structures<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-sub\">diamond, graphite and graphene<\/div>\n              <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-sub-card-num\">3<\/div>\n            <span class=\"ols-sub-card-status ols-sub-card-status--available\">Available<\/span>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-sub-card-body\">\n            <p class=\"ols-sub-card-title\">Giant Covalent Structures<\/p>\n            <p class=\"ols-sub-card-desc\">Compare diamond, graphite and graphene: how each is bonded, and why the structure explains hardness, melting point and electrical conductivity.<\/p>\n            <span class=\"ols-sub-card-cta\">\n              Start revising\n              <svg viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><path d=\"M3 8h10M9 4l4 4-4 4\"><\/path><\/svg>\n            <\/span>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/a>\n        <a class=\"ols-sub-card ols-sub-card--available\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/sigma-and-pi-bonds-and-hybridisation\/\">\n          <div class=\"ols-sub-card-img-wrap\">\n            <div class=\"ols-sub-visual ols-sub-visual--particles\">\n              <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-panel\">\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-kicker\">Orbital overlap<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-equation-line\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\u03c3 + \u03c0<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-main ols-sub-visual-main--long\">Sigma and Pi Bonds and Hybridisation<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-sub\">sp, sp\u00b2 and sp\u00b3 hybridisation<\/div>\n              <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-sub-card-num\">4<\/div>\n            <span class=\"ols-sub-card-status ols-sub-card-status--available\">Available<\/span>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-sub-card-body\">\n            <p class=\"ols-sub-card-title\">Sigma and Pi Bonds and Hybridisation<\/p>\n            <p class=\"ols-sub-card-desc\">How \u03c3 and \u03c0 bonds form by orbital overlap, the bonding in N\u2082 and HCN, and sp, sp\u00b2 and sp\u00b3 hybridisation (3.4.2).<\/p>\n            <span class=\"ols-sub-card-cta\">\n              Start revising\n              <svg viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><path d=\"M3 8h10M9 4l4 4-4 4\"><\/path><\/svg>\n            <\/span>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/a>\n        <a class=\"ols-sub-card ols-sub-card--available\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/bond-energy-and-bond-length\/\">\n          <div class=\"ols-sub-card-img-wrap\">\n            <div class=\"ols-sub-visual ols-sub-visual--particles\">\n              <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-panel\">\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-kicker\">Bond strength<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-equation-line\" aria-hidden=\"true\">C\u2261C 0.120 nm<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-main ols-sub-visual-main--mid\">Bond Energy and Bond Length<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-sub\">short bonds are strong bonds<\/div>\n              <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-sub-card-num\">5<\/div>\n            <span class=\"ols-sub-card-status ols-sub-card-status--available\">Available<\/span>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-sub-card-body\">\n            <p class=\"ols-sub-card-title\">Bond Energy and Bond Length<\/p>\n            <p class=\"ols-sub-card-desc\">Defining bond energy and bond length, how they are linked, and using them to compare the reactivity of covalent molecules (3.4.3).<\/p>\n            <span class=\"ols-sub-card-cta\">\n              Start revising\n              <svg viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><path d=\"M3 8h10M9 4l4 4-4 4\"><\/path><\/svg>\n            <\/span>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/a>\n        <a class=\"ols-sub-card ols-sub-card--available\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/electronegativity\/\">\n          <div class=\"ols-sub-card-img-wrap\">\n            <div class=\"ols-sub-visual ols-sub-visual--particles\">\n              <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-panel\">\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-kicker\">Bond polarity<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-equation-line\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\u03b4\u207a \u2192 \u03b4\u207b<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-main\">Electronegativity<\/div>\n                <div class=\"ols-sub-visual-sub\">uneven electron density in a bond<\/div>\n              <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"ols-sub-card-num\">6<\/div>\n            <span class=\"ols-sub-card-status ols-sub-card-status--available\">Available<\/span>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-sub-card-body\">\n            <p class=\"ols-sub-card-title\">Electronegativity<\/p>\n            <p class=\"ols-sub-card-desc\">Connect electronegativity differences with polar bonds, uneven electron density and partial charges in covalent molecules.<\/p>\n            <span class=\"ols-sub-card-cta\">\n              Start revising\n              <svg viewBox=\"0 0 16 16\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><path d=\"M3 8h10M9 4l4 4-4 4\"><\/path><\/svg>\n            <\/span>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/a>\n        <\/div>\n    <\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ols-note-card purple\">\n      <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">\u2713<\/div>\n        <h2>How to Use These Pages<\/h2>\n      <\/div>\n\n      <p>Start with the nature of covalent bonding to secure electron-pair sharing and dot-and-cross diagrams. Then move to dative covalent bonding to understand how one atom can provide both electrons in the shared pair. Finally, use electronegativity to explain bond polarity and uneven electron density.<\/p>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-key-box\">\n        <p><strong>Exam focus:<\/strong> For covalent bonding, distinguish clearly between shared electron pairs, lone pairs, dative covalent bonds and polar bonds. Use precise language about electron density rather than vague statements such as \u201cthe atom pulls harder\u201d.<\/p>\n      <\/div>\n    <\/article>\n\n    <section class=\"ols-related-card\">\n      <h2>Related Topic 3 Pages<\/h2>\n      <p>Use these pages to connect covalent bonding with ionic bonding, molecular shape, molecular polarity and metallic bonding.<\/p>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-related-grid\">\n        <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/ionic-bonding\/\">Ionic Bonding<\/a>\n        <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/\">Shapes of Molecules<\/a>\n        <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/polar-molecules\/\">Polar Molecules<\/a>\n        <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/metallic-bonding\/\">Metallic Bonding<\/a>\n        <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-10-group-2\/\">Next Topic: Inorganic Chemistry and the Periodic Table<\/a>\n        <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-6-electrochemistry\/\">Next Topic: Redox I<\/a>\n      <\/div>\n    <\/section>\n\n    <section class=\"ols-attribution-card\">\n      <p><strong>Copyright notice:<\/strong> This revision page, including its written explanations, layout and teaching sequence, is produced for Online Learning System by Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah. It is intended for student revision and may not be copied, redistributed or republished without permission.<\/p>\n    <\/section>\n\n    <script type=\"application\/ld+json\">{\n  \"@context\": \"https:\/\/schema.org\",\n  \"@graph\": [\n    {\n      \"@type\": \"WebPage\",\n      \"@id\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/#webpage\",\n      \"url\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/\",\n      \"name\": \"Covalent Bonding Revision Notes\",\n      \"description\": \"A Level Chemistry landing page for covalent bonding, including the nature of covalent bonding, dative covalent bonding and electronegativity.\",\n      \"inLanguage\": \"en-GB\",\n      \"isPartOf\": {\n        \"@type\": \"WebSite\",\n        \"@id\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/#website\",\n        \"name\": \"Online Learning System\",\n        \"url\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/\"\n      },\n      \"about\": [\n        {\n          \"@type\": \"Thing\",\n          \"name\": \"Covalent bonding\"\n        },\n        {\n          \"@type\": \"Thing\",\n          \"name\": \"Dative covalent bonding\"\n        },\n        {\n          \"@type\": \"Thing\",\n          \"name\": \"Electronegativity\"\n        },\n        {\n          \"@type\": \"Thing\",\n          \"name\": \"Bond polarity\"\n        }\n      ],\n      \"author\": {\n        \"@type\": \"Person\",\n        \"name\": \"Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah\",\n        \"url\": \"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/in\/doctormohammedfatah\/\"\n      },\n      \"publisher\": {\n        \"@type\": \"Organization\",\n        \"name\": \"Online Learning System\",\n        \"url\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/\"\n      }\n    },\n    {\n      \"@type\": \"BreadcrumbList\",\n      \"@id\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/#breadcrumb\",\n      \"itemListElement\": [\n        {\n          \"@type\": \"ListItem\",\n          \"position\": 1,\n          \"name\": \"Revision Notes\",\n          \"item\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/\"\n        },\n        {\n          \"@type\": \"ListItem\",\n          \"position\": 2,\n          \"name\": \"A Level Chemistry\",\n          \"item\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/\"\n        },\n        {\n          \"@type\": \"ListItem\",\n          \"position\": 3,\n          \"name\": \"Cambridge International (CIE)\",\n          \"item\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/\"\n        },\n        {\n          \"@type\": \"ListItem\",\n          \"position\": 4,\n          \"name\": \"Topic 3 Chemical Bonding\",\n          \"item\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/\"\n        },\n        {\n          \"@type\": \"ListItem\",\n          \"position\": 5,\n          \"name\": \"Covalent Bonding\",\n          \"item\": \"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/\"\n        }\n      ]\n    }\n  ]\n}<\/script>\n  <\/main>\n<\/section>\n\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Revision Notes \/ A Level Chemistry \/ Cambridge International (CIE) \/ Topic 3 Chemical Bonding \/ Covalent Bonding Covalent Bonding Use this landing page to move quickly between the main covalent bonding revision pages for Topic 3. Each card links to a focused page covering covalent bond formation, dative covalent bonding and electronegativity. AS Level [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":12,"featured_media":0,"parent":7691,"menu_order":1,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-7692","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/7692","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/12"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=7692"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/7692\/revisions"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/7691"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=7692"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}