{"id":7703,"date":"2026-09-12T11:57:15","date_gmt":"2026-09-12T10:57:15","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/bent\/"},"modified":"2026-09-26T10:24:23","modified_gmt":"2026-09-26T09:24:23","slug":"bent","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/bent\/","title":{"rendered":"Bent Molecular Shape"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<section class=\"ols-revision-page ols-bent-molecular-shape-9ch0-page\">\n  <style>\n    .ols-revision-page {\n      --navy: #1C244B;\n      --blue: #2563eb;\n      --soft-blue: #eef4ff;\n      --soft-red: #fff7f7;\n      --soft-purple: #f7f0ff;\n      --soft-green: #f0f7f1;\n      --soft-orange: #fff7ed;\n      --gold: #c9973a;\n      --grey-text: #667085;\n      --body-text: #1f2937;\n      --border: rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.14);\n  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var(--inner-shadow); }\n      .ols-table td { border-bottom: 1px solid var(--border); padding: 14px 16px; overflow-wrap: anywhere; }\n      .ols-table td:last-child { border-bottom: none; }\n      .ols-table td::before { content: attr(data-label); display: block; margin-bottom: 6px; font-size: 13px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--blue); }\n      .ols-author { align-items: flex-start; padding: 22px 18px; border-radius: 22px; }\n      .ols-author-avatar-img { width: 72px; height: 72px; }\n      .ols-author-title { font-size: 24px; }\n      .ols-author-description { font-size: 15px; }\n    }\n  <\/style>\n\n  <aside class=\"ols-sidebar\">\n  <div class=\"ols-sidebar-header\">\n    <h3>Revision Notes<\/h3>\n    <p>Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry<\/p>\n  <\/div>\n  <div class=\"ols-topic-group\">\n    <h4>3.5 Shapes of Molecules<\/h4>\n    <ul class=\"ols-topic-list\">\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/\">Part overview<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/linear\/\">Linear<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/trigonal-planar\/\">Trigonal Planar<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/tetrahedral\/\">Tetrahedral<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/trigonal-pyramidal\/\">Trigonal Pyramidal<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/bent\/\">Bent<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/trigonal-bipyramidal\/\">Trigonal Bipyramidal<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/octahedral\/\">Octahedral<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/square-planar\/\">Square Planar<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/square-pyramidal\/\">Square Pyramidal<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/distorted-t\/\">Distorted T<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/seesaw\/\">SeeSaw<\/a><\/li>\n    <\/ul>\n  <\/div>\n  <div class=\"ols-topic-group\">\n    <h4>Other Topic 3 Parts<\/h4>\n    <ul class=\"ols-topic-list\">\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/\">Topic 3 overview<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/electronegativity\/\">3.1 Electronegativity<\/a><\/li>\n      <li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/\">3.4 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{\r\n    document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', highlightActive);\r\n  }\r\n})();\r\n<\/script>\n\n  <main class=\"ols-main\">\n      <nav class=\"ols-breadcrumbs\" aria-label=\"Breadcrumb\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/\">Revision Notes<\/a> \/\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/\">A Level Chemistry<\/a> \/\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/\">Cambridge International (CIE)<\/a> \/\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/\">Topic 3 Chemical Bonding<\/a> \/\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/\">3.5 Shapes of Molecules<\/a> \/\n<span>Bent Molecular Shape<\/span>\n<\/nav>\n\n      <header class=\"ols-title-card\">\n        <h1>Bent Molecular Shape<\/h1>\n        <p class=\"ols-page-intro\">A focused revision guide to the bent molecular shape, using H<sub>2<\/sub>O as the key example. This page explains why two bonding pairs and two lone pairs around a central atom give a non-linear arrangement with a bond angle of about 104.5&deg;.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-badges\">\n          <div class=\"ols-badge\">AS Level<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-badge\">Topic 3: Chemical Bonding<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-badge\">9701 Papers 1 and 2<\/div>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-author\">\n          <img decoding=\"async\" class=\"ols-author-avatar-img\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/Author-Profile.jpeg\" alt=\"Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah\">\n          <div class=\"ols-author-content\">\n            <h2 class=\"ols-author-title\">Written by:<br><span>Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah<\/span><\/h2>\n            <p class=\"ols-author-description\">Chemistry specialist revision notes for A Level Chemistry.<\/p>\n            <a class=\"ols-linkedin-pill\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/in\/doctormohammedfatah\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">\n              <svg class=\"ols-linkedin-icon\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"currentColor\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><path d=\"M4.98 3.5C4.98 4.88 3.86 6 2.48 6S0 4.88 0 3.5 1.12 1 2.48 1s2.5 1.12 2.5 2.5zM.5 8h4V24h-4V8zm7 0h3.8v2.2h.1c.5-.9 1.8-2.2 3.9-2.2 4.2 0 5 2.8 5 6.4V24h-4v-7.6c0-1.8 0-4.2-2.6-4.2s-3 2-3 4v7.8h-4V8z\"><\/path><\/svg>\n              View LinkedIn Profile\n            <\/a>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/header>\n\n<style>\n  .ols-bent-molecular-shape-9ch0-page .ols-spec-grid {\n    display: grid;\n    grid-template-columns: repeat(3, minmax(0, 1fr));\n    gap: 14px;\n    margin-top: 18px;\n  }\n  .ols-bent-molecular-shape-9ch0-page .ols-spec-box {\n    background: #ffffff;\n    border: 1px solid var(--border);\n    border-radius: 18px;\n    padding: 18px;\n    box-shadow: var(--inner-shadow);\n  }\n  .ols-bent-molecular-shape-9ch0-page .ols-spec-box strong {\n    display: block;\n    font-size: 15px;\n    color: var(--blue);\n    margin-bottom: 6px;\n  }\n  .ols-bent-molecular-shape-9ch0-page .ols-spec-box span {\n    display: block;\n    font-size: 17px;\n    line-height: 1.55;\n    color: var(--body-text);\n    font-weight: 300;\n    overflow-wrap: anywhere;\n  }\n  .ols-bent-molecular-shape-9ch0-page .ols-h5p-grid {\n    display: grid;\n    gap: 18px;\n    margin-top: 22px;\n  }\n  .ols-bent-molecular-shape-9ch0-page .ols-h5p-frame {\n    margin-top: 0;\n  }\n  .ols-bent-molecular-shape-9ch0-page .ols-formula {\n    white-space: nowrap;\n  }\n  @media (max-width: 760px) {\n    .ols-bent-molecular-shape-9ch0-page .ols-spec-grid {\n      grid-template-columns: 1fr;\n    }\n  }\n<\/style>\n\n      <section class=\"ols-h5p-card ols-h5p-inline ols-h5p-recap\">\n<span class=\"ols-h5p-kicker\">Before you start<\/span>\n<h2>GCSE Recap: Shared Pairs and Lone Pairs<\/h2>\n<p>Before you start, check that you can count shared pairs and lone pairs in a dot-and-cross diagram.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-content\" data-content-id=\"663\"><\/div><\/div>\n<\/section>\n<article class=\"ols-note-card soft\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">1<\/div>\n          <h2>What Bent Means<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n        <p>A <strong>bent<\/strong> molecule has two atoms bonded to a central atom, with two lone pairs also present on the central atom. The bonded atoms are not arranged in a straight line because the lone pairs repel the bonding pairs and compress the bond angle.<\/p>\n        <p>The key example for this page is <strong>H<sub>2<\/sub>O<\/strong>. Oxygen is the central atom, each hydrogen atom is bonded to oxygen, and oxygen also has two lone pairs.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-spec-grid\">\n          <div class=\"ols-spec-box\">\n            <strong>Bonding pairs<\/strong>\n            <span>2 bonding pairs around the central atom<\/span>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-spec-box\">\n            <strong>Lone pairs<\/strong>\n            <span>2 lone pairs on the central atom<\/span>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-spec-box\">\n            <strong>Bond angle<\/strong>\n            <span>about 104.5&deg; between the bonds<\/span>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-key-box\"><p><strong>Key idea:<\/strong> two bonding pairs and two lone pairs around a central atom give a bent shape with a bond angle of about 104.5&deg;.<\/p><\/div>\n      <\/article>\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">2<\/div>\n          <h2>Why H<sub>2<\/sub>O Is Bent<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n        <p>In H<sub>2<\/sub>O, the central oxygen atom is surrounded by two O-H bonding pairs and two lone pairs. These four regions of negative charge repel one another and are based on a tetrahedral electron-pair arrangement.<\/p>\n        <div class=\"ols-key-box\"><p><strong>How to count:<\/strong> start with the <strong>outer-shell electrons<\/strong> of the central atom. Add one electron for each negative charge and take one away for each positive charge. Each single bond uses one of those electrons and each double bond uses two, but a double or triple bond still counts as <strong>one bonding region<\/strong>. Divide the electrons left over by two to get the lone pairs. In H<sub>2<\/sub>O: oxygen has <strong>6 outer-shell electrons<\/strong>, the molecule has no charge, and the two O-H single bonds use two of them. Four are left over, which is two lone pairs. Two bonding regions and two lone pairs give four regions, so the arrangement is tetrahedral and the shape is bent. The same count works for an ion once the charge has been added or taken away.<\/p><\/div>\n        <p>The <strong>molecular shape<\/strong> only considers the positions of the atoms, not the invisible lone pairs. Therefore, H<sub>2<\/sub>O is described as <strong>bent<\/strong>, not tetrahedral.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-zoom-card compact\">\n          <div class=\"ols-zoom-card-image\">\n            <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/09\/wave-57.png\" alt=\"Bent H\u2082O with the 104.5\u00b0 angle drawn and marked, two lone pairs on oxygen and a counts panel\" class=\"ols-zoomable-img ols-lightbox-target\" draggable=\"false\">\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-zoom-card-caption\">\n            <p>A bent species has two bonding regions and two lone pairs around the central atom. H<sub>2<\/sub>O is the key model example, with a bond angle of about 104.5&deg;.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/article>\n<section class=\"ols-h5p-card ols-h5p-inline\">\n<span class=\"ols-h5p-kicker\">Check your understanding<\/span>\n<h2>Quick Check: Count the Pairs in Hydrogen Selenide<\/h2>\n<p>Apply the same reasoning to a molecule that is not on this page, answering each question as quickly as you can.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-193\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"193\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Bent Shape Quick Fire: Counting the Electron Pairs in Hydrogen Selenide\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n<!-- 3D card: h2o-bent (swapped 26 Sep 2026) -->\n<section class=\"ols-bnt-001\" id=\"olsBnt001\">\n<style>\n@import url('https:\/\/fonts.googleapis.com\/css2?family=Poppins:wght@300;400;500;600&display=swap');\n\n.ols-bnt-001{\n  font-family:'Poppins',system-ui,-apple-system,'Segoe UI',Roboto,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;\n  color:#1C244B; 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display:flex; gap:20px; flex-wrap:wrap;\n  font-size:12.5px; font-weight:400; color:#5a6180;\n}\n.ols-bnt-001 .bnt-key i{\n  display:inline-block; width:13px; height:13px; border-radius:3px;\n  margin-right:7px; vertical-align:-2px; border:1px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.18);\n}\n\n@media (max-width:760px){\n  .ols-bnt-001{padding:26px; border-radius:22px;}\n  .ols-bnt-001 h2.bnt-title{font-size:20.5px;}\n  .ols-bnt-001 p.bnt-sub{font-size:13.5px;}\n  .ols-bnt-001 .bnt-stage{height:420px;}\n  .ols-bnt-001 .bnt-rowlab{min-width:100%;}\n  .ols-bnt-001 .bnt-seg button{padding:9px 13px; font-size:13px;}\n  .ols-bnt-001 .bnt-lab{font-size:10.5px; padding:4px 8px;}\n  .ols-bnt-001 .bnt-caption{font-size:10.5px; padding:5px 9px; max-width:64%;}\n  .ols-bnt-001 .bnt-badge{font-size:10.5px; padding:4px 9px;}\n  .ols-bnt-001 .bnt-lab.l-cmp{font-size:11.5px; padding:4px 8px;}\n  .ols-bnt-001 .bnt-lab.l-cmp small{font-size:9.5px;}\n  .ols-bnt-001 .bnt-badge.b-shape{font-size:12px;}\n  .ols-bnt-001 .bnt-badges{max-width:70%;}\n  .ols-bnt-001 .bnt-info{padding:18px;}\n}\n@media (prefers-reduced-motion:reduce){\n  .ols-bnt-001 .bnt-seg button,.ols-bnt-001 .bnt-pill{transition:none;}\n}\n\n.ols-cc-bnt-001{\n  font-family:'Poppins',system-ui,-apple-system,'Segoe UI',Roboto,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;\n  margin:10px auto 0; text-align:center; font-size:11px; font-style:italic; color:#aab0c0;\n}\n.ols-cc-bnt-001 a{color:#aab0c0; text-decoration:none;}\n.ols-cc-bnt-001 a:hover{text-decoration:underline;}\n<\/style>\n\n<div class=\"bnt-head\">\n  <h2 class=\"bnt-title\">Bent Shape of H<sub>2<\/sub>O<\/h2>\n  <p class=\"bnt-sub\">Build water one layer at a time, from four electron pairs in a tetrahedron to a bent molecule whose two lone pairs squeeze the bond angle to 104.5&deg;.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"bnt-stage\" id=\"bntStage\">\n  <canvas class=\"bnt-canvas\" id=\"bntCanvas\"><\/canvas>\n  <div class=\"bnt-overlay\" id=\"bntOverlay\"><\/div>\n  <div class=\"bnt-caption\" id=\"bntCaption\"><\/div>\n  <div class=\"bnt-hint\" id=\"bntHint\">Drag to rotate<\/div>\n  <div class=\"bnt-badges\" id=\"bntBadges\"><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"bnt-controls\">\n  <div class=\"bnt-row\">\n    <span class=\"bnt-rowlab\">Step<\/span>\n    <div class=\"bnt-seg\" role=\"group\" aria-label=\"Step\">\n      <button type=\"button\" data-step=\"1\" aria-pressed=\"true\">Electron pairs<\/button>\n      <button type=\"button\" data-step=\"2\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Bonds<\/button>\n      <button type=\"button\" data-step=\"3\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Bond angles<\/button>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/div>\n\n  <div class=\"bnt-row\">\n    <span class=\"bnt-rowlab\">View<\/span>\n    <div class=\"bnt-seg\" role=\"group\" aria-label=\"Camera view\">\n      <button type=\"button\" data-v=\"front\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Front<\/button>\n      <button type=\"button\" data-v=\"side\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Side<\/button>\n      <button type=\"button\" data-v=\"top\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Top<\/button>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/div>\n\n  <div class=\"bnt-row\">\n    <span class=\"bnt-rowlab\">Show<\/span>\n    <button type=\"button\" class=\"bnt-pill\" id=\"bntTogLp\" aria-pressed=\"true\"><i class=\"dot\"><\/i>Lone pairs<\/button>\n    <button type=\"button\" class=\"bnt-pill p-gold\" id=\"bntTogAng\" aria-pressed=\"true\"><i class=\"dot\"><\/i>Bond angles<\/button>\n    <button type=\"button\" class=\"bnt-pill\" id=\"bntTogLab\" aria-pressed=\"true\"><i class=\"dot\"><\/i>Labels<\/button>\n    <button type=\"button\" class=\"bnt-pill\" id=\"bntTogCloud\" aria-pressed=\"false\"><i class=\"dot\"><\/i>Electron-pair cloud outline<\/button>\n    <button type=\"button\" class=\"bnt-pill p-gold\" id=\"bntTogCmp\" aria-pressed=\"false\"><i class=\"dot\"><\/i>Compare CH<sub>4<\/sub>, NH<sub>3<\/sub>, H<sub>2<\/sub>O<\/button>\n  <\/div>\n\n  <div class=\"bnt-row\">\n    <span class=\"bnt-rowlab\">Motion<\/span>\n    <button type=\"button\" class=\"bnt-pill\" id=\"bntSpin\" aria-pressed=\"false\"><i class=\"dot\"><\/i>Rotation<\/button>\n    <button type=\"button\" class=\"bnt-pill\" id=\"bntResetV\">Reset view<\/button>\n  <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"bnt-info\">\n  <h3 id=\"bntInfoTitle\"><\/h3>\n  <p id=\"bntInfoText\"><\/p>\n  <div class=\"bnt-facts\" id=\"bntFacts\"><\/div>\n  <div class=\"bnt-key\">\n    <span><i style=\"background:rgba(59,120,220,0.45)\"><\/i>Electron pair<\/span>\n    <span><i style=\"background:rgba(59,120,220,0.62)\"><\/i>Lone pair<\/span>\n    <span><i style=\"background:#484e5c\"><\/i>Oxygen, central atom<\/span>\n    <span><i style=\"background:#eef0f5\"><\/i>Hydrogen<\/span>\n    <span><i style=\"background:#8c92a0\"><\/i>Bond<\/span>\n    <span><i style=\"background:#c9961c\"><\/i>Bond angle<\/span>\n  <\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n<p class=\"ols-cc-bnt-001\">&copy; Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah &#8211; <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">onlinelearningsystem.net<\/a><\/p>\n\n<script src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/JS\/h2o-bent.js?v=20260926\"><\/script>\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card purple\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">3<\/div>\n          <h2>Bonding Pairs, Lone Pairs and Bond Angle<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n        <p>The four electron regions around oxygen in H<sub>2<\/sub>O are arranged to minimise repulsion. If all four regions were bonding pairs, the bond angle would be close to the tetrahedral angle of 109.5&deg;.<\/p>\n        <p>However, H<sub>2<\/sub>O has two lone pairs. Lone pair-lone pair repulsion is stronger than lone pair-bonding pair repulsion, which is stronger than bonding pair-bonding pair repulsion. This stronger repulsion compresses the H-O-H bond angle to about 104.5&deg;.<\/p>\n        <div class=\"ols-rule-list\">\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Bonding pair-bonding pair<\/h3>\n            <p>Weakest repulsion of the three common repulsion types.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Lone pair-bonding pair<\/h3>\n            <p>Stronger repulsion, so bond angles are compressed.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Lone pair-lone pair<\/h3>\n            <p>Strongest repulsion. NH<sub>3<\/sub> has one lone pair and a bond angle of <strong>107&deg;<\/strong>, while H<sub>2<\/sub>O has two and closes to about <strong>104.5&deg;<\/strong>. As a rule of thumb, each lone pair takes about 2.5&deg; off the tetrahedral angle of 109.5&deg;.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/article>\n<section class=\"ols-h5p-card ols-h5p-inline\">\n<span class=\"ols-h5p-kicker\">Check your understanding<\/span>\n<h2>Quick Check: Rank the Bond Angles<\/h2>\n<p>Drag the four fluorides into order of bond angle, largest at the top.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-194\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"194\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Bent Shape Sort: Ranking Four Fluorides by Bond Angle\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">4<\/div>\n          <h2>Bent Shape Examples<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n        <p>The bent shape is found when the central atom has two bonding pairs and two lone pairs. H<sub>2<\/sub>O is the standard example used to explain the 104.5&deg; bond angle.<\/p>\n        <p>The last column gives the angle <strong>predicted<\/strong> at A Level, which is what mark schemes expect. Measured angles vary around it, and H<sub>2<\/sub>S is actually about 92&deg;. Quote about 104.5&deg; unless a question gives you a value to use.<\/p>\n        <div class=\"ols-table-wrap\">\n          <table class=\"ols-table\">\n            <thead>\n              <tr>\n                <th>Species<\/th>\n                <th>Central atom<\/th>\n                <th>Electron regions<\/th>\n                <th>Shape<\/th>\n                <th>Angle predicted at A Level<\/th>\n              <\/tr>\n            <\/thead>\n            <tbody>\n              <tr>\n                <td data-label=\"Species\">H<sub>2<\/sub>O<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Central atom\">O<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Electron regions\">2 bonding regions, 2 lone pairs<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Shape\">Bent<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Angle predicted at A Level\">about 104.5&deg;<\/td>\n              <\/tr>\n              <tr>\n                <td data-label=\"Species\">OCl<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Central atom\">O<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Electron regions\">2 bonding regions, 2 lone pairs<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Shape\">Bent<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Angle predicted at A Level\">about 104.5&deg;<\/td>\n              <\/tr>\n              <tr>\n                <td data-label=\"Species\">H<sub>2<\/sub>S<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Central atom\">S<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Electron regions\">2 bonding regions, 2 lone pairs<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Shape\">Bent<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Angle predicted at A Level\">about 104.5&deg;<\/td>\n              <\/tr>\n              <tr>\n                <td data-label=\"Species\">OF<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Central atom\">O<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Electron regions\">2 bonding regions, 2 lone pairs<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Shape\">Bent<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Angle predicted at A Level\">about 104.5&deg;<\/td>\n              <\/tr>\n              <tr>\n                <td data-label=\"Species\">SCl<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Central atom\">S<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Electron regions\">2 bonding regions, 2 lone pairs<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Shape\">Bent<\/td>\n                <td data-label=\"Angle predicted at A Level\">about 104.5&deg;<\/td>\n              <\/tr>\n            <\/tbody>\n          <\/table>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/article>\n<section class=\"ols-h5p-card ols-h5p-inline\">\n<span class=\"ols-h5p-kicker\">Check your understanding<\/span>\n<h2>Quick Check: Find the Bent Species<\/h2>\n<p>Count the electron pairs around each central atom and click every species with two bonding pairs and two lone pairs.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-192\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"192\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Bent Shape Mark the Words: Which Species Have Two Bonding Pairs and Two Lone Pairs?\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card orange\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">5<\/div>\n          <h2>How to Explain Bent Shape in an Exam<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n        <p>A full exam explanation should connect the number of electron pairs to electron-pair repulsion, then explain why the bond angle is smaller than the tetrahedral angle.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-rule-list\">\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>1. Identify the central atom<\/h3>\n            <p>For H<sub>2<\/sub>O, the central atom is oxygen.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>2. Count bonding pairs and lone pairs<\/h3>\n            <p>Oxygen has two bonding pairs and two lone pairs around it.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>3. Apply electron-pair repulsion<\/h3>\n            <p>The electron pairs repel and arrange themselves as far apart as possible, but the two lone pairs repel more strongly than bonding pairs.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>4. State the shape and angle<\/h3>\n            <p>The molecule is bent with a bond angle of about 104.5&deg;.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-definition-box\">\n          <p><strong>Exam answer model:<\/strong> H<sub>2<\/sub>O has two bonding pairs and two lone pairs around the central oxygen atom. The electron pairs repel and arrange themselves as far apart as possible. The two lone pairs repel the bonding pairs more strongly, compressing the H-O-H bond angle from 109.5&deg; to about 104.5&deg;. Therefore, H<sub>2<\/sub>O is bent.<\/p>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/article>\n<section class=\"ols-h5p-card ols-h5p-inline\">\n<span class=\"ols-h5p-kicker\">Check your understanding<\/span>\n<h2>Quick Check: Explain the Amide Ion<\/h2>\n<p>Write a short exam-style explanation, then compare it with the mark points and the model answer.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-195\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"195\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Bent Shape Explain: Shape and Bond Angle of the Amide Ion\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"ols-h5p-card ols-h5p-inline\">\n<span class=\"ols-h5p-kicker\">Check your understanding<\/span>\n<h2>Quick Check: Whose Reasoning Is Sound?<\/h2>\n<p>In each round, choose the one student whose reasoning is correct.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-664\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"664\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Bent Shape Summary: Spot the Sound Reasoning\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card soft\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">6<\/div>\n          <h2>Common Exam Points<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n        <div class=\"ols-rule-list\">\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Do not call H<sub>2<\/sub>O linear<\/h3>\n            <p>Although there are only two bonded atoms, the two lone pairs on oxygen bend the molecule.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Separate electron-pair arrangement from molecular shape<\/h3>\n            <p>The electron-pair arrangement is based on tetrahedral geometry, but the molecular shape is bent because only atoms are used to describe the visible shape.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Use the correct repulsion order<\/h3>\n            <p>Lone pair-lone pair repulsion is strongest, followed by lone pair-bonding pair, then bonding pair-bonding pair.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-rule-item\">\n            <h3>Count around the central atom only<\/h3>\n            <p>The shape is determined by the bonding pairs and lone pairs around the central atom, not by the total number of atoms in the whole species.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/article>\n\n      \n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card purple\">\n        <div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n          <div class=\"ols-note-icon\">\u2713<\/div>\n          <h2>QuickSnap<\/h2>\n        <\/div>\n        <p>The bent shape is produced when a central atom has <strong>two bonding pairs<\/strong> and <strong>two lone pairs<\/strong>. The lone pairs repel bonding pairs more strongly and compress the bond angle to about <strong>104.5&deg;<\/strong>.<\/p>\n        <div class=\"ols-key-box\"><p><strong>Memory line:<\/strong> 2 bonding pairs + 2 lone pairs = bent = about 104.5&deg;.<\/p><\/div>\n      <\/article>\n\n      <section class=\"ols-course-cta-covalent\" id=\"olsCourseCtaCovalent001\">\r\n  <style>\r\n    .ols-course-cta-covalent,\r\n    .ols-course-cta-covalent * {\r\n      box-sizing: border-box;\r\n    }\r\n\r\n    .ols-course-cta-covalent {\r\n      --navy: #1C244B;\r\n      --blue: #2563eb;\r\n      --body-text: #1f2937;\r\n      --grey-text: #667085;\r\n      --border: rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.14);\r\n      --shadow: 0 18px 45px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.12);\r\n      --inner-shadow: 0 10px 26px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.08);\r\n\r\n      width: 100%;\r\n      margin: 30px 0 24px;\r\n      font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif;\r\n    }\r\n\r\n    .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-course-cta-card {\r\n      overflow: 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center;\r\n      justify-content: center;\r\n      padding: 15px 28px;\r\n      border-radius: 999px;\r\n      background: var(--navy);\r\n      color: #ffffff;\r\n      text-decoration: none;\r\n      font-size: 16px;\r\n      line-height: 1.2;\r\n      font-weight: 800;\r\n      box-shadow: 0 12px 26px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.18);\r\n      transition:\r\n        transform 0.2s ease,\r\n        background 0.2s ease,\r\n        box-shadow 0.2s ease;\r\n    }\r\n\r\n    .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-course-button:hover {\r\n      transform: translateY(-2px);\r\n      background: var(--blue);\r\n      color: #ffffff;\r\n      box-shadow: 0 16px 32px rgba(37, 99, 235, 0.24);\r\n    }\r\n\r\n    .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-course-button-top {\r\n      flex-shrink: 0;\r\n      padding: 12px 22px;\r\n      font-size: 15px;\r\n    }\r\n\r\n    @media (max-width: 900px) {\r\n      .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-course-cta-top {\r\n        grid-template-columns: 1fr;\r\n      }\r\n\r\n      .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-course-cta-image-link {\r\n        max-width: 520px;\r\n        margin: 0 auto;\r\n      }\r\n\r\n      .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-course-cta-intro-stats {\r\n        grid-template-columns: 1fr;\r\n      }\r\n\r\n      .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-animation-frame-shell {\r\n        height: 520px;\r\n      }\r\n    }\r\n\r\n    @media (max-width: 760px) {\r\n      .ols-course-cta-covalent {\r\n        margin: 26px 0 22px;\r\n      }\r\n\r\n      .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-course-cta-card {\r\n        padding: 20px;\r\n        border-radius: 24px;\r\n      }\r\n\r\n      .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-course-cta-header-row {\r\n        align-items: stretch;\r\n      }\r\n\r\n      .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-course-button-top {\r\n        width: 100%;\r\n      }\r\n\r\n      .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-course-cta-stats,\r\n      .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-course-cta-features {\r\n        grid-template-columns: 1fr;\r\n      }\r\n\r\n      .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-course-animation-wrap {\r\n        padding: 0;\r\n        border-radius: 0;\r\n      }\r\n\r\n      .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-animation-frame-shell {\r\n        height: 420px;\r\n        border-radius: 18px;\r\n      }\r\n\r\n      .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-animation-play-circle {\r\n        width: 76px;\r\n        height: 76px;\r\n      }\r\n\r\n      .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-animation-play-icon {\r\n        border-top-width: 14px;\r\n        border-bottom-width: 14px;\r\n        border-left-width: 22px;\r\n      }\r\n\r\n      .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-animation-pause-button {\r\n        left: 12px;\r\n        bottom: 12px;\r\n        min-width: 84px;\r\n        padding: 9px 14px;\r\n        font-size: 13px;\r\n      }\r\n\r\n      .ols-course-cta-covalent .ols-course-button {\r\n        width: 100%;\r\n      }\r\n    }\r\n  <\/style>\r\n\r\n  <div class=\"ols-course-cta-card\">\r\n\r\n    <div class=\"ols-course-cta-top\">\r\n\r\n      <a class=\"ols-course-cta-image-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/product\/covalent-bonding-and-shapes-of-molecules-topic-3-cambridge-international\/\" aria-label=\"Open the Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry Topic 3 Covalent Bonding and Shapes of Molecules course page\">\r\n\r\n        <div class=\"ols-course-cta-image\">\r\n          <img decoding=\"async\"\r\n            src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/09\/cambridge-international-a-level-chemistry-topic-3-covalent-bonding-shapes-interactive-course-banner.jpg\"\r\n            alt=\"Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry Topic 3 Covalent Bonding and Shapes of Molecules interactive course banner\"\r\n          >\r\n        <\/div>\r\n\r\n      <\/a>\r\n\r\n      <div class=\"ols-course-cta-content\">\r\n\r\n        <div class=\"ols-course-cta-header-row\">\r\n\r\n          <div class=\"ols-course-cta-kicker\">\r\n            Cambridge 9701 | Topic 3 Course\r\n          <\/div>\r\n\r\n          <a class=\"ols-course-button ols-course-button-top\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/product\/covalent-bonding-and-shapes-of-molecules-topic-3-cambridge-international\/\">\r\n            View Course\r\n          <\/a>\r\n\r\n        <\/div>\r\n\r\n        <h2>\r\n          Master Covalent Bonding and Shapes of Molecules for Cambridge International AS &amp; A Level Chemistry\r\n        <\/h2>\r\n\r\n      <\/div>\r\n\r\n    <\/div>\r\n\r\n    <div class=\"ols-course-cta-intro-stats\">\r\n\r\n      <p class=\"ols-course-cta-intro\">\r\n        Continue from these free revision notes into the full Topic 3 Covalent Bonding and Shapes of Molecules course. The guided video lessons are ready now; the Cambridge International MCQ bank, teacher-marked short-answer questions and KASP spec-point report are being written, and the course opens for enrolment as soon as they are complete.\r\n      <\/p>\r\n\r\n      <div class=\"ols-course-cta-stats\">\r\n\r\n        <div class=\"ols-course-stat\">\r\n          <span>Recorded lessons<\/span>\n          <strong>Coming soon<\/strong>\r\n        <\/div>\r\n\r\n        <div class=\"ols-course-stat\">\r\n          <span>Video lessons<\/span>\n          <strong>Coming soon<\/strong>\r\n        <\/div>\r\n\r\n        <div class=\"ols-course-stat\">\r\n          <span>MCQ practice<\/span>\n          <strong>Coming soon<\/strong>\r\n        <\/div>\r\n\r\n        <div class=\"ols-course-stat\">\r\n          <span>SAQ practice<\/span>\n          <strong>Coming soon<\/strong>\r\n        <\/div>\r\n\r\n      <\/div>\r\n\r\n    <\/div>\r\n\r\n    <div class=\"ols-course-cta-features\">\r\n\r\n      <div class=\"ols-course-feature\">\r\n        <h3>Guided video teaching<\/h3>\r\n        <p>\r\n          Learn the chemistry and exam technique through structured video lessons with worked examples and walkthroughs.\r\n        <\/p>\r\n      <\/div>\r\n\r\n      <div class=\"ols-course-feature\">\r\n        <h3>Instant MCQ feedback<\/h3>\r\n        <p>\r\n          Auto-marked MCQ quizzes provide immediate diagnostic feedback for every answer choice.\r\n        <\/p>\r\n      <\/div>\r\n\r\n      <div class=\"ols-course-feature\">\r\n        <h3>Teacher-marked SAQs<\/h3>\r\n        <p>\r\n          Submit written exam responses and receive chemistry specialist feedback with improvement guidance.\r\n        <\/p>\r\n      <\/div>\r\n\r\n      <div class=\"ols-course-feature\">\r\n        <h3>Progress tracking<\/h3>\r\n        <p>\r\n          Identify strengths and weaknesses across the full Topic 3 specification with targeted reporting.\r\n        <\/p>\r\n      <\/div>\r\n\r\n    <\/div>\r\n\r\n    <div class=\"ols-course-animation-wrap\">\r\n\r\n      <h3 class=\"ols-course-animation-title\">\r\n        See how the course works\r\n      <\/h3>\r\n\r\n      <div class=\"ols-animation-frame-shell\">\r\n        <iframe\r\n          id=\"olsCourseAnimationFrame001\"\r\n          title=\"OLS course preview animation\"\r\n          loading=\"lazy\"\r\n          referrerpolicy=\"no-referrer\">\r\n        <\/iframe>\r\n\r\n        <button\r\n          class=\"ols-animation-start-overlay\"\r\n          id=\"olsCourseAnimationStart001\"\r\n          type=\"button\"\r\n          aria-label=\"Play OLS course preview animation\">\r\n          <span class=\"ols-animation-start-content\">\r\n            <span class=\"ols-animation-play-circle\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\r\n              <span class=\"ols-animation-play-icon\"><\/span>\r\n            <\/span>\r\n            <span class=\"ols-animation-start-text\">\r\n              Play course preview animation\r\n            <\/span>\r\n          <\/span>\r\n        <\/button>\r\n\r\n        <button\r\n          class=\"ols-animation-pause-button\"\r\n          id=\"olsCourseAnimationPause001\"\r\n          type=\"button\"\r\n          aria-label=\"Pause course preview animation\">\r\n          Pause\r\n        <\/button>\r\n      <\/div>\r\n\r\n      <p class=\"ols-course-video-status\">\r\n        Click play to start the course preview animation.\r\n      <\/p>\r\n\r\n    <\/div>\r\n\r\n    <div class=\"ols-course-cta-bottom\">\r\n\r\n      <a class=\"ols-course-button\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/product\/covalent-bonding-and-shapes-of-molecules-topic-3-cambridge-international\/\">\r\n        View Covalent Bonding and Shapes of Molecules Course\r\n      <\/a>\r\n\r\n    <\/div>\r\n\r\n  <\/div>\r\n\r\n  <template id=\"olsCourseAnimationTemplate001\">\r\n<!DOCTYPE html>\r\n<html lang=\"en\">\r\n<head>\r\n<meta charset=\"UTF-8\">\r\n<meta name=\"viewport\" content=\"width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0\">\r\n<title>OLS Combined Promo Animation<\/title>\r\n\r\n<style>\r\n*{box-sizing:border-box;}\r\n\r\nhtml.ols-animation-paused *,\r\nhtml.ols-animation-paused *::before,\r\nhtml.ols-animation-paused *::after{\r\n  animation-play-state:paused!important;\r\n}\r\n\r\n:root{\r\n  --ols-video-screen-w:1180;\r\n  --ols-video-screen-h:664;\r\n  --ols-video-screen-scale:1;\r\n  --ols-mcq-screen-w:1360;\r\n  --ols-mcq-screen-h:1130;\r\n  --ols-mcq-screen-scale:1;\r\n  --ols-saq-screen-w:1360;\r\n  --ols-saq-screen-h:965;\r\n  --ols-saq-screen-scale:1;\r\n}\r\n\r\nhtml,\r\nbody{\r\n  width:100%;\r\n  height:100%;\r\n}\r\n\r\nbody{\r\n  margin:0;\r\n  overflow:hidden;\r\n  font-family:Poppins,Arial,sans-serif;\r\n  background:#e9efff;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-combined-stage{\r\n  position:relative;\r\n  width:100vw;\r\n  height:100vh;\r\n  overflow:hidden;\r\n  background:\r\n    radial-gradient(circle at top left,rgba(70,127,247,0.14),transparent 34%),\r\n    linear-gradient(135deg,#f8fbff 0%,#e9efff 100%);\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-scene{\r\n  position:absolute;\r\n  inset:0;\r\n  width:100vw;\r\n  height:100vh;\r\n  opacity:0;\r\n  visibility:hidden;\r\n  pointer-events:none;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-scene.active{\r\n  opacity:1;\r\n  visibility:visible;\r\n  pointer-events:auto;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-scene.fade-out{\r\n  animation:olsSceneFadeOut 0.85s ease forwards;\r\n}\r\n\r\n@keyframes olsSceneFadeOut{\r\n  to{\r\n    opacity:0;\r\n    visibility:hidden;\r\n  }\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-title-cursor{\r\n  display:inline-block;\r\n  width:5px;\r\n  height:0.85em;\r\n  background:#1C244B;\r\n  margin-left:8px;\r\n  transform:translateY(8px);\r\n  animation:olsBlink 0.8s infinite;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.cursor{\r\n  display:inline-block;\r\n  width:3px;\r\n  height:28px;\r\n  background:#1c244b;\r\n  margin-left:3px;\r\n  transform:translateY(5px);\r\n  animation:olsBlink 0.8s infinite;\r\n}\r\n\r\n@keyframes olsBlink{\r\n  0%,45%{opacity:1;}\r\n  46%,100%{opacity:0;}\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-stage,\r\n.ols-mcq-stage,\r\n.ols-saq-stage{\r\n  width:100vw;\r\n  height:100vh;\r\n  display:flex;\r\n  justify-content:center;\r\n  align-items:center;\r\n  padding:0;\r\n  overflow:hidden;\r\n  background:\r\n    radial-gradient(circle at top left,rgba(70,127,247,0.14),transparent 34%),\r\n    linear-gradient(135deg,#f8fbff 0%,#e9efff 100%);\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-title-screen,\r\n.ols-mcq-intro-screen,\r\n.ols-saq-intro{\r\n  position:absolute;\r\n  inset:0;\r\n  z-index:50;\r\n  display:flex;\r\n  justify-content:center;\r\n  align-items:center;\r\n  background:\r\n    radial-gradient(circle at top left,rgba(70,127,247,0.14),transparent 34%),\r\n    linear-gradient(135deg,#f8fbff 0%,#e9efff 100%);\r\n  opacity:1;\r\n  visibility:visible;\r\n  pointer-events:none;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-title-screen.hide{animation:olsVideoTitleFadeOut 0.85s ease forwards;}\r\n.ols-mcq-intro-screen.hide{animation:olsMcqIntroFadeOut 0.85s ease forwards;}\r\n.ols-saq-intro.hide{animation:olsSaqIntroFadeOut 0.85s ease forwards;}\r\n\r\n@keyframes olsVideoTitleFadeOut{to{opacity:0;visibility:hidden;}}\r\n@keyframes olsMcqIntroFadeOut{to{opacity:0;visibility:hidden;}}\r\n@keyframes olsSaqIntroFadeOut{to{opacity:0;visibility:hidden;}}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-title-wrap,\r\n.ols-mcq-intro-title-wrap,\r\n.ols-saq-intro-title-wrap{\r\n  max-width:1250px;\r\n  padding:0 34px;\r\n  text-align:center;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-title,\r\n.ols-mcq-intro-title,\r\n.ols-saq-intro-title{\r\n  margin:0;\r\n  font-family:Poppins,Arial,sans-serif;\r\n  font-size:clamp(52px,8vw,124px);\r\n  font-weight:600;\r\n  line-height:1.08;\r\n  color:#1C244B;\r\n  text-shadow:-9px 0 9px rgba(28,36,75,0.16);\r\n  letter-spacing:-0.045em;\r\n}\r\n\r\n#videoTitleText,\r\n#mcqIntroTitleText,\r\n#saqIntroTitleText{\r\n  white-space:pre-wrap;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-scene{\r\n  width:100%;\r\n  height:100%;\r\n  display:flex;\r\n  justify-content:center;\r\n  align-items:center;\r\n  opacity:0;\r\n  visibility:hidden;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-scene.show{\r\n  visibility:visible;\r\n  animation:olsVideoSceneIn 1s ease forwards;\r\n}\r\n\r\n@keyframes olsVideoSceneIn{to{opacity:1;}}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-scale-wrap{\r\n  width:calc(var(--ols-video-screen-w) * 1px);\r\n  height:calc(var(--ols-video-screen-h) * 1px);\r\n  transform:scale(var(--ols-video-screen-scale));\r\n  transform-origin:center center;\r\n  display:flex;\r\n  justify-content:center;\r\n  align-items:center;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-card{\r\n  width:1180px;\r\n  height:664px;\r\n  border-radius:28px;\r\n  overflow:hidden;\r\n  background:#1C244B;\r\n  box-shadow:0 28px 80px rgba(28,36,75,0.28);\r\n  transform:translateY(24px) scale(0.96);\r\n  opacity:0;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-scene.show .ols-video-card{\r\n  animation:olsVideoCardIn 1s cubic-bezier(.18,.89,.32,1.12) forwards;\r\n  animation-delay:0.2s;\r\n}\r\n\r\n@keyframes olsVideoCardIn{\r\n  to{\r\n    transform:translateY(0) scale(1);\r\n    opacity:1;\r\n  }\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-video-card video{\r\n  display:block;\r\n  width:100%;\r\n  height:100%;\r\n  aspect-ratio:16 \/ 9;\r\n  object-fit:cover;\r\n  border:0;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-mcq-scale-wrap,\r\n.ols-saq-scale-wrap{\r\n  width:calc(var(--ols-mcq-screen-w) * 1px);\r\n  height:calc(var(--ols-mcq-screen-h) * 1px);\r\n  transform:scale(var(--ols-mcq-screen-scale));\r\n  transform-origin:center center;\r\n  display:flex;\r\n  justify-content:center;\r\n  align-items:flex-start;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-saq-scale-wrap{\r\n  width:calc(var(--ols-saq-screen-w) * 1px);\r\n  height:calc(var(--ols-saq-screen-h) * 1px);\r\n  transform:scale(var(--ols-saq-screen-scale));\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-mcq-screen{\r\n  width:1360px;\r\n  height:1130px;\r\n  border-radius:22px;\r\n  overflow:hidden;\r\n  background:#eaf0ff;\r\n  box-shadow:0 26px 70px rgba(28,36,75,0.22);\r\n  opacity:0;\r\n  transform:translateY(24px) scale(0.96);\r\n}\r\n\r\n.ols-mcq-screen.show{\r\n  animation:olsMcqScreenEnter 1s ease forwards;\r\n}\r\n\r\n@keyframes olsMcqScreenEnter{\r\n  from{opacity:0;transform:translateY(24px) scale(0.96);}\r\n  to{opacity:1;transform:translateY(0) scale(1);}\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-question-area{\r\n  background:#eaf0ff;\r\n  padding:28px 30px 30px;\r\n  position:relative;\r\n  height:610px;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-question-lead{\r\n  margin:0 0 14px;\r\n  font-size:24px;\r\n  line-height:1.35;\r\n  color:#111827;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-ionic-table{\r\n  border-collapse:collapse;\r\n  width:500px;\r\n  margin-bottom:8px;\r\n  font-size:21px;\r\n  color:#111827;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-ionic-table th,\r\n.mcq-ionic-table td{\r\n  border:1.5px solid #c9ced8;\r\n  padding:12px 18px;\r\n  text-align:center;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-ionic-table th{\r\n  background:#f2f2f2;\r\n  font-weight:700;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-ionic-table td{\r\n  background:#eaf0ff;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-question-main{\r\n  margin:6px 0 28px;\r\n  font-size:24px;\r\n  line-height:1.35;\r\n  color:#111827;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-options-wrap{\r\n  display:flex;\r\n  flex-direction:column;\r\n  gap:17px;\r\n  max-width:1200px;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-option-row{\r\n  display:flex;\r\n  align-items:center;\r\n  min-height:34px;\r\n  position:relative;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-radio{\r\n  width:28px;\r\n  height:28px;\r\n  border-radius:50%;\r\n  border:2px solid #6b7280;\r\n  margin-right:16px;\r\n  background:transparent;\r\n  position:relative;\r\n  flex:0 0 auto;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-radio::after{\r\n  content:\"\";\r\n  position:absolute;\r\n  inset:5px;\r\n  border-radius:50%;\r\n  background:#6b7280;\r\n  opacity:0;\r\n  transform:scale(0.4);\r\n  transition:opacity 0.25s ease,transform 0.25s ease;\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-option-row.selected .mcq-radio::after{\r\n  opacity:1;\r\n  transform:scale(1);\r\n}\r\n\r\n.mcq-radio-ripple{\r\n  position:absolute;\r\n  left:14px;\r\n  top:50%;\r\n  width:28px;\r\n  height:28px;\r\n  border-radius:50%;\r\n  border:2px solid rgba(28,36,75,0.28);\r\n  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class=\"ols-mcq-scale-wrap\">\r\n        <main id=\"mcqScreen\" class=\"ols-mcq-screen\">\r\n          <section class=\"mcq-question-area\">\r\n            <p class=\"mcq-question-lead\">Some ionic radii are shown.<\/p>\r\n\r\n            <table class=\"mcq-ionic-table\">\r\n              <thead>\r\n                <tr>\r\n                  <th>Ion<\/th>\r\n                  <th>Ionic radius \/ nm<\/th>\r\n                <\/tr>\r\n              <\/thead>\r\n              <tbody>\r\n                <tr><td>Na<sup>+<\/sup><\/td><td>0.102<\/td><\/tr>\r\n                <tr><td>K<sup>+<\/sup><\/td><td>0.138<\/td><\/tr>\r\n                <tr><td>F<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td><td>0.133<\/td><\/tr>\r\n                <tr><td>Cl<sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/td><td>0.180<\/td><\/tr>\r\n              <\/tbody>\r\n            <\/table>\r\n\r\n            <p class=\"mcq-question-main\">Which compound has the strongest ionic bonding?<\/p>\r\n\r\n            <div class=\"mcq-options-wrap\">\r\n              <div id=\"mcqWrongOption\" class=\"mcq-option-row\">\r\n                <span class=\"mcq-radio\"><\/span>\r\n                <span class=\"mcq-radio-ripple\"><\/span>\r\n                <span class=\"mcq-option-label\">sodium chloride<\/span>\r\n\r\n                <span id=\"mcqSpecificFeedback\" class=\"mcq-specific-feedback\">\r\n                  <span id=\"mcqCrossIcon\" class=\"mcq-cross-icon\">\u00d7<\/span>\r\n                  <span class=\"mcq-specific-feedback-text\">\r\n                    <span id=\"mcqSpecificText\"><\/span><span id=\"mcqSpecificCursor\" class=\"cursor mcq-specific-cursor\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/span>\r\n                  <\/span>\r\n                <\/span>\r\n              <\/div>\r\n\r\n              <div class=\"mcq-option-row\"><span class=\"mcq-radio\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-radio-ripple\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-option-label\">potassium chloride<\/span><\/div>\r\n              <div class=\"mcq-option-row\"><span class=\"mcq-radio\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-radio-ripple\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-option-label\">sodium fluoride<\/span><\/div>\r\n              <div class=\"mcq-option-row\"><span class=\"mcq-radio\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-radio-ripple\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-option-label\">potassium fluoride<\/span><\/div>\r\n            <\/div>\r\n\r\n            <button id=\"mcqSubmitButton\" class=\"mcq-submit-button\">Submit answer<\/button>\r\n          <\/section>\r\n\r\n          <section id=\"mcqGeneralFeedback\" class=\"mcq-general-feedback\">\r\n            <span id=\"mcqGeneralText\"><\/span><span id=\"mcqGeneralCursor\" class=\"cursor mcq-general-cursor\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/span>\r\n          <\/section>\r\n        <\/main>\r\n      <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n  <\/section>\r\n\r\n  <section id=\"sceneSaq\" class=\"ols-scene\">\r\n    <div class=\"ols-saq-stage\">\r\n      <div id=\"saqIntro\" class=\"ols-saq-intro\">\r\n        <div class=\"ols-saq-intro-title-wrap\">\r\n          <h1 class=\"ols-saq-intro-title\">\r\n            <span id=\"saqIntroTitleText\"><\/span><span id=\"saqIntroTitleCursor\" class=\"ols-title-cursor\"><\/span>\r\n          <\/h1>\r\n        <\/div>\r\n      <\/div>\r\n\r\n      <div class=\"ols-saq-scale-wrap\">\r\n        <main id=\"saqScreen\" class=\"ols-saq-screen\">\r\n          <section class=\"saq-question-area\">\r\n            <div class=\"saq-question-text\">\r\n              <strong>(ii)<\/strong>&nbsp;&nbsp; Melting temperature depends on the strength of metallic bonding.<br>\r\n              Explain why the metallic bonding in magnesium is much stronger than that in sodium.\r\n            <\/div>\r\n\r\n            <div class=\"saq-student-box\">\r\n              <span id=\"saqStudentText\"><\/span><span id=\"saqStudentCursor\" class=\"cursor\"><\/span>\r\n            <\/div>\r\n          <\/section>\r\n\r\n          <section id=\"saqTeacherFeedback\" 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the ions can get closer together.\\n\"+\r\n\"\u2022 Smaller ions \u2192 stronger electrostatic attraction \u2192 stronger ionic lattice.\\n\"+\r\n\"\u2022 Na\u207a (0.102 nm) is smaller than K\u207a (0.138 nm).\\n\"+\r\n\"\u2022 F\u207b (0.133 nm) is smaller than Cl\u207b (0.180 nm).\\n\\n\"+\r\n\"Therefore, the strongest ionic bonding occurs in the compound formed by the smallest cation and the smallest anion \u2192 sodium fluoride (NaF).\\n\\n\"+\r\n\"The correct answer is: sodium fluoride\";\r\n\r\nconst mcqIntroScreen=document.getElementById(\"mcqIntroScreen\");\r\nconst mcqIntroTitleText=document.getElementById(\"mcqIntroTitleText\");\r\nconst mcqIntroTitleCursor=document.getElementById(\"mcqIntroTitleCursor\");\r\nconst mcqScreen=document.getElementById(\"mcqScreen\");\r\nconst mcqWrongOption=document.getElementById(\"mcqWrongOption\");\r\nconst mcqSubmitButton=document.getElementById(\"mcqSubmitButton\");\r\nconst 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Melting temperature is a result of bonding strength, not the cause of it.\\n\\n\"+\r\n\"In metallic bonding, positive metal ions are attracted to a sea of delocalised electrons. The strength of this attraction depends on the charge of the ions and the number of delocalised electrons.\\n\\n\"+\r\n\"Magnesium forms Mg\u00b2\u207a ions and contributes two delocalised electrons per atom, whereas sodium forms Na\u207a ions and contributes only one electron. This results in a stronger electrostatic attraction in magnesium. Additionally, Mg\u00b2\u207a ions have a higher charge density than Na\u207a ions, further strengthening the metallic bonding.\\n\\n\"+\r\n\"Next time, include:\\n\"+\r\n\"\u2022 Ion charge: magnesium forms Mg\u00b2\u207a, sodium forms Na\u207a \u2713\\n\"+\r\n\"\u2022 Delocalised electrons: magnesium provides more electrons to the sea \u2713\\n\"+\r\n\"\u2022 Charge density: smaller, more highly charged ions create stronger attraction \u2713\\n\\n\"+\r\n\"You were close. 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In the standard H<sub>2<\/sub>O example, oxygen has two bonding pairs and two lone pairs.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-faq-item\">\n            <h3>Why is H<sub>2<\/sub>O bent?<\/h3>\n            <p>H<sub>2<\/sub>O is bent because oxygen has two O-H bonding pairs and two lone pairs. The lone pairs occupy electron regions but are not shown as atoms in the molecular shape.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-faq-item\">\n            <h3>What is the bond angle in H<sub>2<\/sub>O?<\/h3>\n            <p>The H-O-H bond angle in H<sub>2<\/sub>O is about 104.5&deg;. It is smaller than 109.5&deg; because the two lone pairs repel bonding pairs more strongly.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-faq-item\">\n            <h3>Is bent the same as linear?<\/h3>\n            <p>No. A linear molecule has a bond angle of 180&deg;. A bent molecule has a smaller bond angle because lone pairs on the central atom repel the bonding pairs.<\/p>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/section>\n\n      <section class=\"ols-related-card\">\n        <h2>Related Topics<\/h2>\n        <p>Use these linked revision pages to connect bent shape with the rest of Topic 3 bonding and structure.<\/p>\n        <div class=\"ols-related-grid\">\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/trigonal-pyramidal\/\">Trigonal Pyramidal<\/a>\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/shapes-of-molecules\/tetrahedral\/\">Tetrahedral<\/a>\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/cie\/topic-3-chemical-bonding\/covalent-bonding\/polar-molecules\/\">Polar Molecules<\/a>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/section>\n      <section class=\"ols-attribution-card\">\n        <p><strong>Copyright notice:<\/strong> This OLS revision content, including the explanations, layout, diagrams, tables and embedded learning structure, is authored for Online Learning System by Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah. 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