{"id":7712,"date":"2026-09-12T11:57:33","date_gmt":"2026-09-12T10:57:33","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/nature-of-covalent-bonding\/giant-covalent-structures\/"},"modified":"2026-09-13T13:00:21","modified_gmt":"2026-09-13T12:00:21","slug":"giant-covalent-structures","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/nature-of-covalent-bonding\/giant-covalent-structures\/","title":{"rendered":"Giant Covalent Structures"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<section class=\"ols-revision-page ols-covalent-bonding-structure-page\">\n  <style>\n    .ols-revision-page {\n      --navy: #1C244B;\n      --blue: #2563eb;\n      --soft-blue: #eef4ff;\n      --soft-red: #fff7f7;\n      --soft-purple: #f7f0ff;\n      --soft-green: #f0f7f1;\n      --soft-orange: #fff7ed;\n    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.ols-course-button-top, .ols-course-button { width: 100%; }\n    }\n  \n    .ols-figure-placeholder .ols-placeholder-box { border: 2px dashed #c9973a; background: #fffaf0; border-radius: 16px; padding: 26px 22px; font-weight: 700; color: #7a4b12; text-align: center; line-height: 1.6; }\n    .ols-figure-placeholder .ols-figure-image { background: transparent; }\n    .ols-figure-placeholder { background: #ffffff; border: 1px solid rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.12); border-radius: 22px; padding: 14px; margin: 18px 0 6px; }\n    .ols-figure-placeholder .ols-figure-caption p { margin: 10px 0 0; font-size: 14px; color: #667085; text-align: center; }\n<\/style>\n\n    <aside class=\"ols-sidebar\">\r\n  <div class=\"ols-sidebar-header\">\r\n    <h3>Revision Notes<\/h3>\r\n    <p>A Level Chemistry<\/p>\r\n  <\/div>\r\n\r\n  <div class=\"ols-topic-group\">\r\n    <h4>Topic 3 Bonding &amp; Structure<\/h4>\r\n\r\n    <ul class=\"ols-topic-list\">\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/ionic-bonding-structure\/\">Ionic Bonding &amp; Structure<\/a>\r\n\r\n        <ul class=\"ols-subtopic-list\">\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/ionic-bonding-structure\/nature-of-ionic-bonding\/\">Nature of Ionic Bonding<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/ionic-bonding-structure\/polarisation-of-ions\/\">Polarisation of Ions<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/ionic-bonding-structure\/physical-properties-of-ionic-compounds\/\">Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n        <\/ul>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/nature-of-covalent-bonding\/\">Nature of Covalent Bonding<\/a>\r\n\r\n        <ul class=\"ols-subtopic-list\">\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/nature-of-covalent-bonding\/covalent-bonding-and-structure\/\">Covalent Bonding<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/nature-of-covalent-bonding\/dative-covalent-bonding\/\">Dative Covalent Bonding<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\n          <li>\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/nature-of-covalent-bonding\/giant-covalent-structures\/\">Giant Covalent Structures<\/a>\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/nature-of-covalent-bonding\/electronegativity\/\">Electronegativity<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n        <\/ul>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/\">Shapes of Molecules<\/a>\r\n\r\n        <ul class=\"ols-subtopic-list\">\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/linear\/\">Linear<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/trigonal-planar\/\">Trigonal Planar<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/tetrahedral\/\">Tetrahedral<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/trigonal-pyramidal\/\">Trigonal Pyramidal<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/bent\/\">Bent<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/trigonal-bipyramidal\/\">Trigonal Bipyramidal<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/octahedral\/\">Octahedral<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/square-planar\/\">Square Planar<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/square-pyramidal\/\">Square Pyramidal<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/distorted-t\/\">Distorted T<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/seesaw\/\">SeeSaw<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n        <\/ul>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/polar-and-non-polar-molecules\/\">Polar &amp; Non-Polar Molecules<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/metallic-bonding\/\">Nature of Metallic Bonding<\/a>\r\n\r\n        <ul class=\"ols-subtopic-list\">\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/metallic-bonding\/metallic-bonding-structure\/\">Metallic Bonding &amp; Structure<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n          <li>\r\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/metallic-bonding\/physical-properties-of-metals\/\">Physical Properties of Metals<\/a>\r\n          <\/li>\r\n        <\/ul>\r\n      <\/li>\n          <li>\n            <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/structure-types\/\">Structure Types<\/a>\n          <\/li>\r\n    <\/ul>\r\n  <\/div>\r\n\r\n  <div class=\"ols-topic-group\">\r\n    <h4>Next Topics<\/h4>\r\n\r\n    <ul class=\"ols-topic-list\">\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-4-organic-chemistry-and-alkanes\/\">Organic Chemistry &amp; Alkanes<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-5-alkenes\/\">Alkenes<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n      <li>\r\n        <a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-6-energetics\/\">Energetics<\/a>\r\n      <\/li>\r\n    <\/ul>\r\n  <\/div>\r\n<\/aside>\r\n\r\n<script>\r\n(function() {\r\n  function normalisePath(path) {\r\n    return String(path || '')\r\n      .split('?')[0]\r\n      .split('#')[0]\r\n      .replace(\/\\\/+$\/, '')\r\n      .toLowerCase();\r\n  }\r\n\r\n  function highlightActive() {\r\n    var sidebar = document.querySelector('.ols-sidebar');\r\n    if (!sidebar) return false;\r\n\r\n    var currentPath = normalisePath(window.location.pathname);\r\n    var links = sidebar.querySelectorAll('a[href]');\r\n    var matched = null;\r\n    var matchedLength = 0;\r\n\r\n    sidebar.querySelectorAll('.active, .active-main, 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Structure<\/a> \/\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/nature-of-covalent-bonding\/\">Nature of Covalent Bonding<\/a> \/\n<span>Giant Covalent Structures<\/span>\n<\/nav>\n\n      <header class=\"ols-title-card\">\n        <h1>Giant Covalent Structures<\/h1>\n        <p class=\"ols-page-intro\">A concise revision guide to giant covalent structures: how diamond, graphite and graphene are bonded, why their properties differ so much, and how the structure explains melting point, hardness and electrical conductivity.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-badges\">\n          <div class=\"ols-badge\">Exam board: Edexcel International<\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-badge\">Topic 3: Bonding &amp; Structure<\/div>\n          <div class=\"ols-badge\">Level: A Level Chemistry<\/div>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-author\">\n\n    <img decoding=\"async\"\n      class=\"ols-author-avatar-img\"\n      src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/Author-Profile.jpeg\"\n      alt=\"Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah\"\n    >\n\n    <div class=\"ols-author-content\">\n\n      <h2 class=\"ols-author-title\">\n        Written by: Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah\n      <\/h2>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-author-description\">\n        Chemistry specialist revision notes for A Level Chemistry.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <a class=\"ols-linkedin-pill\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/in\/doctormohammedfatah\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">\n        <svg class=\"ols-linkedin-icon\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"currentColor\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n          <path d=\"M4.98 3.5C4.98 4.88 3.86 6 2.48 6S0 4.88 0 3.5 1.12 1 2.48 1s2.5 1.12 2.5 2.5zM.5 8h4V24h-4V8zm7 0h3.8v2.2h.1c.5-.9 1.8-2.2 3.9-2.2 4.2 0 5 2.8 5 6.4V24h-4v-7.6c0-1.8 0-4.2-2.6-4.2s-3 2-3 4v7.8h-4V8z\"\/>\n        <\/svg>\n        View LinkedIn Profile\n      <\/a>\n\n    <\/div>\n\n  <\/div>\n      <\/header>\n\n      <article class=\"ols-note-card soft\">\n<div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n<div class=\"ols-note-icon\">1<\/div>\n<h2>What Is a Giant Covalent Structure?<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<p>In a <strong>giant covalent structure<\/strong> (also called a macromolecular or giant molecular structure) every atom is joined to its neighbours by <strong>strong covalent bonds<\/strong> that extend throughout the whole crystal. There are no separate molecules: a single crystal of diamond is, in effect, one enormous molecule. Compare this with a simple molecular substance such as iodine, where strong covalent bonds hold each I<sub>2<\/sub> molecule together but only weak intermolecular forces act between the molecules.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-table-wrap\">\n<table class=\"ols-table\">\n<thead>\n<tr><th>Feature<\/th><th>Giant covalent (diamond, graphite, graphene)<\/th><th>Simple molecular (iodine, ice, carbon dioxide)<\/th><\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr><td><strong>Particles<\/strong><\/td><td>Atoms in a continuous network<\/td><td>Discrete molecules<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Forces broken on melting<\/strong><\/td><td>Strong covalent bonds<\/td><td>Weak intermolecular forces<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Melting point<\/strong><\/td><td>Very high (diamond sublimes above 3600 \u00b0C)<\/td><td>Low<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Solubility in water<\/strong><\/td><td>Insoluble<\/td><td>Usually low; some polar molecules dissolve<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Electrical conductivity<\/strong><\/td><td>Usually none; graphite and graphene conduct<\/td><td>None<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-key-box\">\n<p><strong>Key idea:<\/strong> Melting a giant covalent structure means breaking covalent bonds, which needs a great deal of energy, so these substances have very high melting points and are hard or, in the case of graphite, strongly bonded within each layer.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/article>\n<article class=\"ols-note-card\">\n<div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n<div class=\"ols-note-icon\">2<\/div>\n<h2>Diamond<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<p>In <strong>diamond<\/strong> each carbon atom forms <strong>four single covalent bonds<\/strong> to four other carbon atoms arranged <strong>tetrahedrally<\/strong> around it, with bond angles of 109.5\u00b0. The result is a rigid three-dimensional network in which every atom is locked in place by strong C-C bonds.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-table-wrap\">\n<table class=\"ols-table\">\n<thead>\n<tr><th>Property<\/th><th>Explanation from the structure<\/th><\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr><td><strong>Very high melting and sublimation point<\/strong><\/td><td>Many strong covalent bonds must be broken<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Extremely hard<\/strong><\/td><td>The rigid tetrahedral network resists any distortion; diamond is used in cutting tools and drill tips<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Does not conduct electricity<\/strong><\/td><td>All four outer electrons of each carbon are used in bonding, so there are no delocalised electrons<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Insoluble in all solvents<\/strong><\/td><td>No solvent interaction can compete with the covalent bonds<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-figure-card ols-zoom-pop\">\n<div class=\"ols-figure-image\">\n<a class=\"ols-image-fullscreen-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/09\/fragment-of-the-diamond-lattice.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" aria-label=\"Open image fullscreen\">\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/09\/fragment-of-the-diamond-lattice.jpg\" alt=\"Fragment of the diamond lattice: every carbon atom bonded tetrahedrally to four others\" data-fullscreen-src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/09\/fragment-of-the-diamond-lattice.jpg\">\n<\/a>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-figure-caption\"><p>Diamond: every carbon atom is bonded tetrahedrally to four others in a rigid three-dimensional network.<\/p><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Silicon<\/strong> has the same structure as diamond, which is why it is also a hard, high-melting solid, although its Si-Si bonds are weaker than C-C bonds.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-key-box\">\n<p><strong>Exam sentence:<\/strong> Diamond has a giant covalent structure in which each carbon atom is bonded to four others by strong covalent bonds, so a large amount of energy is needed to break the bonds and it has a very high melting point.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/article>\n<article class=\"ols-note-card purple\">\n<div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n<div class=\"ols-note-icon\">3<\/div>\n<h2>Graphite<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<p>In <strong>graphite<\/strong> each carbon atom forms <strong>three covalent bonds<\/strong> to three other carbon atoms, giving flat <strong>hexagonal layers<\/strong> with bond angles of 120\u00b0. The fourth outer electron of each carbon is not used in a localised bond; it sits in a p orbital above and below the layer and becomes <strong>delocalised<\/strong> across the whole sheet. The layers are held to each other only by <strong>weak intermolecular forces<\/strong> (induced dipole-dipole or van der Waals forces), and are relatively far apart.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-table-wrap\">\n<table class=\"ols-table\">\n<thead>\n<tr><th>Property<\/th><th>Explanation from the structure<\/th><\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr><td><strong>Very high melting point<\/strong><\/td><td>The strong covalent bonds within the layers must be broken<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Soft and slippery<\/strong><\/td><td>The weak forces between layers let them slide over each other; graphite is used as a lubricant and in pencils<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Conducts electricity<\/strong><\/td><td>The delocalised electrons can move along the layers when a voltage is applied<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Low density compared with diamond<\/strong><\/td><td>The layers are widely spaced<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Insoluble<\/strong><\/td><td>Covalent bonding throughout the layers<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-figure-card ols-zoom-pop\">\n<div class=\"ols-figure-image\">\n<a class=\"ols-image-fullscreen-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/09\/three-stacked-hexagonal-layers-of-graphite.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" aria-label=\"Open image fullscreen\">\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/09\/three-stacked-hexagonal-layers-of-graphite.jpg\" alt=\"Three stacked hexagonal layers of graphite held together by weak forces between the layers\" data-fullscreen-src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/09\/three-stacked-hexagonal-layers-of-graphite.jpg\">\n<\/a>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-figure-caption\"><p>Graphite: strong covalent bonds within hexagonal layers, weak forces between them, and delocalised electrons that conduct electricity.<\/p><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-key-box\">\n<p><strong>Exam focus:<\/strong> Graphite conducts because it has delocalised electrons; it is soft because the layers are held together only by weak intermolecular forces. Do not say the layers are held by covalent bonds, and do not say graphite conducts because it is a metal.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/article>\n<article class=\"ols-note-card\">\n<div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n<div class=\"ols-note-icon\">4<\/div>\n<h2>Graphene<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Graphene<\/strong> is a <strong>single layer of graphite<\/strong>: a sheet of carbon atoms one atom thick, each bonded covalently to three others in a hexagonal pattern, with one delocalised electron per carbon spread over the sheet. It is described as a two-dimensional giant covalent structure.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-table-wrap\">\n<table class=\"ols-table\">\n<thead>\n<tr><th>Property<\/th><th>Explanation<\/th><th>Application<\/th><\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr><td><strong>Extremely strong for its thickness<\/strong><\/td><td>Strong covalent bonds throughout the sheet<\/td><td>Reinforcing composites and lightweight materials<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Excellent electrical conductor<\/strong><\/td><td>Delocalised electrons move freely across the sheet<\/td><td>Flexible electronics, touchscreens, sensors<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Very good thermal conductor<\/strong><\/td><td>Vibrations pass easily through the rigid covalent network<\/td><td>Heat management in electronic devices<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Transparent and flexible<\/strong><\/td><td>A single atomic layer absorbs little light and can bend without breaking bonds<\/td><td>Transparent conducting films<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-figure-card ols-zoom-pop\">\n<div class=\"ols-figure-image\">\n<a class=\"ols-image-fullscreen-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/09\/single-graphene-sheet.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" aria-label=\"Open image fullscreen\">\n<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/09\/single-graphene-sheet.jpg\" alt=\"A single graphene sheet: a flat honeycomb of carbon hexagons one atom thick\" data-fullscreen-src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/09\/single-graphene-sheet.jpg\">\n<\/a>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-figure-caption\"><p>Graphene: one layer of graphite, a two-dimensional giant covalent structure that is strong, flexible and conducting.<\/p><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-key-box\">\n<p><strong>Exam sentence:<\/strong> Graphene is a single layer of graphite in which each carbon atom is covalently bonded to three others; the delocalised electrons make it an excellent conductor and the covalent network makes it very strong.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/article>\n<article class=\"ols-note-card soft\">\n<div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n<div class=\"ols-note-icon\">5<\/div>\n<h2>Comparing the Three Carbon Structures<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-table-wrap\">\n<table class=\"ols-table\">\n<thead>\n<tr><th><\/th><th>Diamond<\/th><th>Graphite<\/th><th>Graphene<\/th><\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr><td><strong>Bonds per carbon atom<\/strong><\/td><td>4<\/td><td>3<\/td><td>3<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Arrangement<\/strong><\/td><td>Tetrahedral, 109.5\u00b0, three-dimensional<\/td><td>Hexagonal layers, 120\u00b0<\/td><td>One hexagonal layer, 120\u00b0<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Delocalised electrons<\/strong><\/td><td>None<\/td><td>One per carbon, within each layer<\/td><td>One per carbon, across the sheet<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Electrical conductivity<\/strong><\/td><td>None<\/td><td>Along the layers<\/td><td>Excellent<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Hardness<\/strong><\/td><td>Extremely hard<\/td><td>Soft, layers slide<\/td><td>Very strong sheet<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr><td><strong>Melting point<\/strong><\/td><td>Very high<\/td><td>Very high<\/td><td>Very high<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-key-box\">\n<p><strong>Key idea:<\/strong> The same element gives three very different materials because the bonding arrangement differs: four localised bonds give hardness and no conduction; three bonds plus a delocalised electron give layers that conduct.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/article>\n<article class=\"ols-note-card soft\">\n<div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n<div class=\"ols-note-icon\">6<\/div>\n<h2>Where This Sits in the Edexcel International Specification<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<p>Topic 3 point 3.12 asks you to describe the structures of graphite, diamond and graphene and to discuss their applications, alongside the ionic, covalent and metallic bonding types in Topic 3.<\/p>\n<\/article>\n<article class=\"ols-note-card purple\">\n<div class=\"ols-note-title\">\n<div class=\"ols-note-icon\">7<\/div>\n<h2>Common Exam Mistakes<\/h2>\n<\/div>\n<ul>\n<li>Saying graphite is soft because its covalent bonds are weak. The covalent bonds are strong; it is the forces between layers that are weak.<\/li>\n<li>Saying diamond conducts electricity, or that graphite conducts because it contains ions or is metallic. Only delocalised electrons explain the conduction.<\/li>\n<li>Describing melting as breaking intermolecular forces. In a giant covalent structure the covalent bonds themselves must be broken.<\/li>\n<li>Forgetting the bond angle: 109.5\u00b0 in diamond, 120\u00b0 in graphite and graphene.<\/li>\n<li>Drawing a diamond fragment with carbon atoms that have only three bonds, or a graphite layer with four bonds per carbon.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"ols-key-box\">\n<p><strong>Exam sentence:<\/strong> Giant covalent structures have very high melting points because many strong covalent bonds must be broken; only those with delocalised electrons, graphite and graphene, conduct electricity.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/article>\n<section class=\"ols-h5p-card\">\n<h2>Check Your Understanding<\/h2>\n<p>Use these short activities to apply the ideas to structures not used on this page.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-437\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"437\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Giant Covalent Structures Drag: Silicon and Boron Nitride\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-438\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"438\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Giant Covalent Structures MCQ: Silicon Carbide\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-439\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"439\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Giant Covalent Structures MCQ: Why Graphite Electrodes Conduct\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"ols-h5p-frame\"><div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-440\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"440\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Giant Covalent Structures MCQ: Identifying the Structure from Data\"><\/iframe><\/div><\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"ols-course-cta-covalent-shapes\" id=\"olsCourseCtaCovalentShapes001\">\n  <style>\n    .ols-course-cta-covalent-shapes,\n    .ols-course-cta-covalent-shapes * {\n      box-sizing: border-box;\n    }\n\n    .ols-course-cta-covalent-shapes {\n      --navy: #1C244B;\n      --blue: #2563eb;\n      --body-text: #1f2937;\n      --grey-text: #667085;\n      --border: rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.14);\n      --shadow: 0 18px 45px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.12);\n      --inner-shadow: 0 10px 26px rgba(28, 36, 75, 0.08);\n\n      width: 100%;\n      margin: 30px 0 24px;\n      font-family: Poppins, Arial, sans-serif;\n    }\n\n    .ols-course-cta-covalent-shapes .ols-course-cta-card {\n      overflow: hidden;\n      border-radius: 30px;\n      border: 1px solid var(--border);\n      background:\n        radial-gradient(circle at top left, rgba(37, 99, 235, 0.16), transparent 34%),\n        linear-gradient(135deg, #ffffff 0%, #f8fbff 100%);\n      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class=\"ols-course-cta-content\">\n\n        <div class=\"ols-course-cta-header-row\">\n\n          <div class=\"ols-course-cta-kicker\">\n            Complete Topic 3B\/C Covalent Bonding &#038; Shapes of Molecules Course\n          <\/div>\n\n          <a class=\"ols-course-button ols-course-button-top\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/product\/covalent-bonding-shapes-of-molecules-edexcel-t3b-c\/\">\n            View Course\n          <\/a>\n\n        <\/div>\n\n        <h2>\n          Master Covalent Bonding and Shapes of Molecules for Edexcel International A Level Chemistry\n        <\/h2>\n\n      <\/div>\n\n    <\/div>\n\n    <div class=\"ols-course-cta-intro-stats\">\n\n      <p class=\"ols-course-cta-intro\">\n        Continue from these free revision notes into the full Topic 3B\/C Covalent Bonding and Shapes of Molecules course, with guided video teaching, diagnostic MCQ practice, teacher-marked short-answer questions and a specification assignment with a personalised progress report.\n      <\/p>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-course-cta-stats\">\n\n        <div class=\"ols-course-stat\">\n          <span>Guided learning<\/span>\n          <strong>13 hours<\/strong>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-course-stat\">\n          <span>Video lessons<\/span>\n          <strong>281 mins<\/strong>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-course-stat\">\n          <span>MCQ practice<\/span>\n          <strong>37 marks<\/strong>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-course-stat\">\n          <span>SAQ practice<\/span>\n          <strong>169 marks<\/strong>\n        <\/div>\n\n      <\/div>\n\n    <\/div>\n\n    <div class=\"ols-course-cta-features\">\n\n      <div class=\"ols-course-feature\">\n        <h3>Guided video teaching<\/h3>\n        <p>\n          Learn covalent bonding, dot-and-cross diagrams, giant covalent structures, electronegativity, polarity and molecular shapes through structured video lessons with worked examples and walkthroughs.\n        <\/p>\n      <\/div>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-course-feature\">\n        <h3>Instant MCQ feedback<\/h3>\n        <p>\n          Auto-marked MCQ quizzes provide immediate diagnostic feedback for every answer choice.\n        <\/p>\n      <\/div>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-course-feature\">\n        <h3>Teacher-marked SAQs<\/h3>\n        <p>\n          Submit written exam responses and receive chemistry specialist feedback with improvement guidance.\n        <\/p>\n      <\/div>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-course-feature\">\n        <h3>Progress tracking<\/h3>\n        <p>\n          Identify strengths and weaknesses across covalent bonding, giant covalent structures, polarity, VSEPR theory and molecular shapes with targeted reporting.\n        <\/p>\n      <\/div>\n\n    <\/div>\n\n    <div class=\"ols-course-animation-wrap\">\n\n      <h3 class=\"ols-course-animation-title\">\n        See how the course works\n      <\/h3>\n\n      <div 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preview animation\">\n          Pause\n        <\/button>\n      <\/div>\n\n      <p class=\"ols-course-video-status\">\n        Click play to start the course preview animation.\n      <\/p>\n\n    <\/div>\n\n    <div class=\"ols-course-cta-bottom\">\n\n      <a class=\"ols-course-button\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/product\/covalent-bonding-shapes-of-molecules-edexcel-t3b-c\/\">\n        View Covalent Bonding &#038; Shapes of Molecules Topic 3B\/C Course\n      <\/a>\n\n    <\/div>\n\n  <\/div>\n\n  <template id=\"olsCourseAnimationTemplate001\">\n<!DOCTYPE html>\n<html lang=\"en\">\n<head>\n<meta charset=\"UTF-8\">\n<meta name=\"viewport\" content=\"width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0\">\n<title>OLS Combined Promo Animation<\/title>\n\n<style>\n*{box-sizing:border-box;}\n\nhtml.ols-animation-paused *,\nhtml.ols-animation-paused *::before,\nhtml.ols-animation-paused *::after{\n  animation-play-state:paused!important;\n}\n\n:root{\n  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class=\"ols-combined-stage\">\n\n  <section id=\"sceneVideo\" class=\"ols-scene active\">\n    <div class=\"ols-video-stage\">\n      <div id=\"videoTitleScreen\" class=\"ols-video-title-screen\">\n        <div class=\"ols-video-title-wrap\">\n          <h1 class=\"ols-video-title\">\n            <span id=\"videoTitleText\"><\/span><span id=\"videoTitleCursor\" class=\"ols-title-cursor\"><\/span>\n          <\/h1>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/div>\n\n      <section id=\"videoScene\" class=\"ols-video-scene\">\n        <div class=\"ols-video-scale-wrap\">\n          <div class=\"ols-video-card\">\n            <video\n              id=\"lessonVideo\"\n              src=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/05\/Virtual-Lesson.mp4\"\n              muted\n              playsinline\n              preload=\"auto\">\n            <\/video>\n          <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/section>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/section>\n\n  <section id=\"sceneMcq\" class=\"ols-scene\">\n    <div class=\"ols-mcq-stage\">\n      <div id=\"mcqIntroScreen\" class=\"ols-mcq-intro-screen\">\n        <div class=\"ols-mcq-intro-title-wrap\">\n          <h1 class=\"ols-mcq-intro-title\">\n            <span id=\"mcqIntroTitleText\"><\/span><span id=\"mcqIntroTitleCursor\" class=\"ols-title-cursor\"><\/span>\n          <\/h1>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/div>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-mcq-scale-wrap\">\n        <main id=\"mcqScreen\" class=\"ols-mcq-screen\">\n          <section class=\"mcq-question-area\">\n            <p class=\"mcq-question-lead\">The shapes of some species are being compared.<\/p>\n\n            <p class=\"mcq-question-main\">Which species is not tetrahedral?<\/p>\n\n            <div class=\"mcq-options-wrap\">\n              <div id=\"mcqWrongOption\" class=\"mcq-option-row\">\n                <span class=\"mcq-radio\"><\/span>\n                <span class=\"mcq-radio-ripple\"><\/span>\n                <span class=\"mcq-option-label\">methane, CH<sub>4<\/sub><\/span>\n\n                <span id=\"mcqSpecificFeedback\" class=\"mcq-specific-feedback\">\n                  <span id=\"mcqCrossIcon\" class=\"mcq-cross-icon\">\u00d7<\/span>\n                  <span class=\"mcq-specific-feedback-text\">\n                    <span id=\"mcqSpecificText\"><\/span><span id=\"mcqSpecificCursor\" class=\"cursor mcq-specific-cursor\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/span>\n                  <\/span>\n                <\/span>\n              <\/div>\n\n              <div class=\"mcq-option-row\"><span class=\"mcq-radio\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-radio-ripple\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-option-label\">ammonium ion, NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup><\/span><\/div>\n              <div class=\"mcq-option-row\"><span class=\"mcq-radio\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-radio-ripple\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-option-label\">tetrachloroiodate(III) ion, ICl<sub>4<\/sub><sup>\u2212<\/sup><\/span><\/div>\n              <div class=\"mcq-option-row\"><span class=\"mcq-radio\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-radio-ripple\"><\/span><span class=\"mcq-option-label\">tetrachloromethane, CCl<sub>4<\/sub><\/span><\/div>\n            <\/div>\n\n            <button id=\"mcqSubmitButton\" class=\"mcq-submit-button\">Submit answer<\/button>\n          <\/section>\n\n          <section id=\"mcqGeneralFeedback\" class=\"mcq-general-feedback\">\n            <span id=\"mcqGeneralText\"><\/span><span id=\"mcqGeneralCursor\" class=\"cursor mcq-general-cursor\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/span>\n          <\/section>\n        <\/main>\n      <\/div>\n    <\/div>\n  <\/section>\n\n  <section id=\"sceneSaq\" class=\"ols-scene\">\n    <div class=\"ols-saq-stage\">\n      <div id=\"saqIntro\" class=\"ols-saq-intro\">\n        <div class=\"ols-saq-intro-title-wrap\">\n          <h1 class=\"ols-saq-intro-title\">\n            <span id=\"saqIntroTitleText\"><\/span><span id=\"saqIntroTitleCursor\" class=\"ols-title-cursor\"><\/span>\n          <\/h1>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/div>\n\n      <div class=\"ols-saq-scale-wrap\">\n        <main id=\"saqScreen\" class=\"ols-saq-screen\">\n          <section class=\"saq-question-area\">\n            <div class=\"saq-question-text\">\n              <strong>(ii)<\/strong>&nbsp;&nbsp; Silicon has a much higher melting temperature than phosphorus.<br>\n              Explain this difference in terms of structure and bonding.\n            <\/div>\n\n            <div class=\"saq-student-box\">\n              <span id=\"saqStudentText\"><\/span><span id=\"saqStudentCursor\" class=\"cursor\"><\/span>\n            <\/div>\n          <\/section>\n\n          <section id=\"saqTeacherFeedback\" class=\"saq-teacher-feedback\">\n            <span id=\"saqTeacherText\"><\/span><span id=\"saqTeacherCursor\" class=\"cursor saq-teacher-cursor\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/span>\n          <\/section>\n        <\/main>\n      <\/div>\n    <\/div>\n  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Structure with the next linked revision notes.<\/p>\n\n        <div class=\"ols-related-grid\">\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/\">Dative Covalent Bonding<\/a>\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/\">Electronegativity<\/a>\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/shapes-of-molecules\/\">Shapes of Molecules<\/a>\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/topic-3-bonding-structure\/polar-and-non-polar-molecules\/\">Polar &amp; Non-Polar Molecules<\/a>\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/\">Ionic Bonding &amp; Structure<\/a>\n          <a class=\"ols-related-item\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onlinelearningsystem.net\/xyz\/revision-notes\/a-level-chemistry\/edexcel-international\/\">Metallic Bonding &amp; Structure<\/a>\n        <\/div>\n      <\/section>\n\n      <section class=\"ols-attribution-card\">\n        <p><strong>Copyright notice:<\/strong> This OLS revision content, including the explanations, layout, diagrams, tables and embedded learning structure, is authored for Online Learning System by Dr. Mohammed Al-Fatah. 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