How X-Rays Reveal the Structure of Metal Crystals

Explore the structure of metal crystals and how X-ray diffraction reveals their atomic arrangements. Learn about common crystal lattices such as face-centred and body-centred cubic structures, and how theories like electron pair repulsion help explain the molecular shapes of sulphur compounds.

Infrared Spectroscopy

Infrared spectroscopy is one of the most powerful tools in modern chemistry, used to identify bonds, study molecular vibrations and even monitor greenhouse gases like CO₂ and methane. Discover how bond stretching, bending and dipole moments allow molecules to absorb infrared radiation — and why this technique is essential for A-Level Chemistry.